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G. STANLEY HALL. 








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— 


TO 


HON. GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR 


WHOSE ELOQUENT ORATION ON OLD AGE WAS THE MEANS 
OF SUGGESTING MUCH OF THE BEST MATERIAL 


OF THE PRESENT ESSAY. . 


‘ 





o 
iP 


(hy 
’ 








OP 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 


By CouLin A. SCOTT, 
Late Fellow in Psychology, Clark University. 


Reprinted from the American Journal of Psychology, Vol. VIII, No. 1. 


Biological. From the most general point of view it must 
be admitted that senescence is a constant accompaniment of 
development. The evolution of both the race and the in- 
dividual is as much concerned with the effective dismissal of 
old and ante-dated organs as with the production of new ones. ! 
Minot? indeed regards the whole course of individual life 
from the moment of the union of the two reproductive cells 
as a gradual decay, and has attempted by elaborate weigh- 
ings to prove that during the minority or period of growth of 
guinea pigs, the actual vitalforce diminishes steadily. At 
the same time we must not lose sight of the fact that 
senescing cells, such as glandular products and organs 
like the gill-slits, etc., of the vertebrata, exercise a stimu- 
lating influence upon the organs which remain or take 
their place. Their force is passed on rather than lost, 
and while: decay is undoubtedly a constant and necessary 
factor in all vital manifestations, and whatever may be 
true of the ultimate ‘“‘ vital force,’’ it must be admitted 
that the functions of life as they may be observed in 
any specialized organism, increase for a time in strength, 
range, and complexity, pass through a period of comparative 
poise, and finally break up and disappear. These three 
natural periods, however further they may be divided (C; 
Flourens, e. g.) are emphatically punctuated by the advent 
and decline of the sexual and reproductive functions, which 
may thus be regarded as crowning the physiological devel- 
opment of the individual. 

In many species, however, as Weissmann, Goette, Geddes 
and others have pointed out, the closing stage is- 
wanting. There is no gradual senescence, but death 


'The ability to forget, e. g., is as important to psychic health as 
the capacity to acquire. Cf. paragraph on the funeral. 
"Jour. Phys., May, ’91, and Biologisches Centralblatt, XV, No. 15. 


Paxed 


68 SCOTT : 


follows immediately upon the completion of the repro- 
ductive functions. Weissmann regards this as due entirely to 
external conditions operating upon the individual through 
natural selection, and tries to show that death is a favorable 
adaptation to get rid of senility, which he thus accepts as 
fundamental and due to a ‘‘ wearing out.’’ Goette! on the 
other hand regards death as the fundamental fact, a necessity 
inherent in life itself, an unavoidable consequence of repro- 
duction, and represented in the protozoa by encystment and 
rejuvenation.2 Death must, he says, have become necessary 
and hereditary in a number of individuals before it could 
possibly become useful and thus operated upon by natural 
selection.* Senility he regards as having been ‘‘ acquired in 
the course of development of the race.’’4 

But it is impossible to separate, as Weissmann does com- 
pletely and Goette to a less extent, the individual and its en- 
vironment. A view which combines the internal physiologi- 
cal causes of Goette and the external, natural selection, or 
teleological causes of Weissmann as both necessary and com- 
plementary to each other, is the only one which can have 
any application to organisms as they at present exist. The 
point of fundamental importance brought out by both Goette 
and Weissmann is that death and senility are ultimately func- 
tions of the species, primarily of phylogenetic importance, 
whether regarded as being originally necessary to the con- 
tinuance of life, or impressed upon it from without, and enter 
the life of the individual as such, in connection with the 
sexual and reproductive functions. 

The experiments of Maupas® with Stylonichia pustulata, 
one of the most highly developed protozoans, are inter- 
preted by him (in opposition to Weissmann’s view of 
the immortality of the protozoans) as demonstrating the 
fact of senile degeneration followed by death in these ani- 
mals. S. pustulata multiplies by division at a tempera- 
ture of 24° to 28° C., dividing as often as five times in 
twenty-four hours.® Beginning with an individual which 
had just conjugated, Maupas followed the multiplication 
to the 313th division when he had 510 individuals. He 


1 Life and Death, ‘‘ Biological Memoirs,” p. 135. 
**Ueber der Ursprung des Todes.”’ 


° Recherches expérimentales sur la multiplication des infusories ciliés, 
in the Archives de Zodlogie expér. et gen., 1888, No. 2. 

*If all of the resulting individuals could be nourished to the fif- 
tieth generation,that is, in thirty days, there would be one followed 
by forty-four zeros, which, if united in one mass, would make a 
sphere a million times greater than the sun in volume. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 69 


found that at the 100th division degeneration began and in- 
creased to the 240th. At the 130th generation, sexed indi- 
viduals appeared, which were about half the original volume. 
At the last fission the animals were only 1-60 of the original 
volume. At the 316th division he isolated one of the 510 in- 
dividuals and found that it produced ‘‘ nothing but abortions, 
incapabie of reproducing, and which shortly died.’’1 This 
extinction Maupas calls senile degeneration, thus very ques- 
tionably homologizing this series of separate cells, artificially 
prevented from normal conjugation, with a series of mutually 
dependent and connected cells such as may be found in any 
metazoan. A.M. Marshall? appears to accept this homology, 
but nevertheless agrees with Weissmann in thinking that 
death is not an intrinsic necessity of life, but appears first in 
the higher protozoan in close reciprocal connection with con- 
jugation and reproduction. Since we do not know, says he,? 
‘at what period or to what extent the somatic cells of a met- 
azoan lose their power of conjugating,’’ nor what occurs in 
vaccination or transfusion of blood, he suggests, as a matter 
of theory, the possibility of discovering some means of re- 
juvenescence for the somatic cells, a possibility which G. 
A. Stephens of Norway Lake, Me. (‘‘Long Life’’), in estab- 
lishing a laboratory for the purpose, seems to be inclined to 
devote some effort towards realizing! 

Other special hypotheses on the causes of death have not 
been particularly fruitful. Butschlit thinks that life is the 
result of a ferment which the protozoans and the germinative 
plasma have the power of manufacturing. When the ferment is 
exhausted, life ceases. According to Lendl® every cell by the 
very fact of living accumulates in it substances, some useful, 
some not, which are nevertheless foreign to the pure germ- 
inative plasma. This material he calls ballast, and regards 
it as the cause of death. ‘The reproductive cells keep them- 
selves pure by loading this material on to other cells. He 
supposes that the protozoans divide so that one cell retains 
the ballast, while the other is free. A certain number of the 
protozoans are thus doomed to death. Delbceuf® says that the 
precipitation of the substance of the organs towards 
the inorganic causes death. Dantec’ represents death with 


1J. Delbceuf, ‘Pourquoi mourons-nous ?”? Rev. Phil., Mar. and Apr., 
1891. 

**¢ Biological Lectures and Addresses,’’ chap. on Death, p. 283. 

9 gs 

4“Cedanken iiber Leben und Tod,’”’ Zodl. Anz., V, 64-67. 

5*¢ Hypothese iiber die Entstehung von Soma- und Propagationszellen.”’ 
Jena, 1890. 

6 Art. cit. 

7 Rev. Phil., Jan., Feb. and May, 1895. 


70 SCOTT : 


the primitive forms as an alternative to evolution, or 
change into another species. This becomes necessary, 
both because material for assimilation becomes. ex- 
hausted owing to the narrow confines of the globe, 
and formed products are left within the plastid. He 
thinks that it might be much more possible to develop a 
new species from a moner than to begin higher up the scale 
where the plastids or individual cells are already highly de- 
veloped. Delage,1 observing the almost universal correla- 
tion of differentiation with loss of germinative power, looks 
upon differentiation as the cause of death. Minot? insists 
upon the converse of this and regards the embryo as a special 
arrangement permitting the increase of undifferentiated cells, 
and consequently a higher organization. Spencer says that 
for both somatic and germinal cells it is a matter of environ- 
ment which may permit or not the continuance of nutri- 
tion. 

Of the general vital theories, all of which bear upon the 
question of death and senility, we shall be forced to confine 
ourselves to a brief mention of the ideas of Roux, which per- 
haps, because he has paid the greatest attention to ontogeny, 
apply more directly to the concrete facts, about to be dis- 
cussed, of the last stage of human existence, where, with the 
ceasing of the deeply hereditary racial or reproductive life, 
the more purely individual or ontogenetic features are more. 
sharply defined. Roux? is described by Delage in contrast 
with the animists, evolutionists, and micromerists as an or- 
ganicist, by which he means the acceptance of a moderate de- 
termination by heredity with the addition of ‘‘ surrounding 
forces, always active, always necessary, not simply the 
condition of activity, but an essential element of the 
final product.’’+ Roux thus harmonizes the extremes of 
Weissmann and Goette, already referred to, by bring- 
ing to view the fact of an internal or physiological strug- 
gle for existence among the organs, the cells, and the 
protoplasmic molecules of the organism. ‘‘ This unsimilarity 
of parts,’’ says he,® ‘‘makes it impossible to establish laws of 
heredity which shall govern details of function to the last 
cell or molecule,—as in any army the commander-in-chief 
does not give special orders beforehand affecting every pri- 
vate in the ranks. ‘There must be a possibility of adaptation 
to surroundings, especially in details, which, too, are more 


1 Op. cit., p. 709. 

* Biol. Centr., XV, 15. 

3 “Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus,’’ Leipsic, 1881. 
“ Op. cit., p. 720. 

> “Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus,” p. 71. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 71 


easily changed than events on a larger scale.’?’ How is this 
freedom of organs and of adaptation obtained? | 

Roux believes that the principle that lies back of all de- 
velopment of tissues and organs is over-compensation 
of what is used, a quality which permits self-regula- 
tion, and is really a necessary precondition of life. 
Living matter, unlike inorganic matter, presents an exter- 
nal continuity in spite of the change of conditions. 
To effect this, assimilation must always be in excess 
(over-compensation), for if less than consumption the organ- 
ism comes to an end of itself. If equal, conditions change, 
and nourishment will fail or injurious events will cause de- 
struction. Continuance can only be assured when more is 
assimilated than is consumed. He ‘illustrates this by the 
example of fire, which assimilates more than it uses, 2. e., it 
always has energy left over to kindle new material. This 
would (like life) become eternal if itdid not use up materials 
quicker than other processes can make them. In the same 
way organisms assimilate more than they consume, but 
they do not turn all they use to assimilation; energy remains 
over by which the process performs something. This work- 
product controls the excessive assimilation which otherwise 
would come to an end by not having sufficient material to 
assimilate. He thus regards the more complex processes of 
life as essentially a radiation of assimilation, which, although 
not identical with combustion, is similar to it, the load 
which it carries favoring its continuity. This radiation, load, 
or work-product becomes directed, of course, by natural 
selection, to keep up a supply of food, primarily by moving 
the assimilating mass. Performance of function over and 
above assimilation is just as much a condition of continuous 
assimilation as assimilation itself is of performance. On the 
other hand there comes to be an inverse relationship between 
growth and production (within limits), and we have capacities 
which, although they use up material, do not in themselves 
increase assimilation. The course of development consists 
in properly directing this work-product.* 


1The proper growth of the higher centres favors permanence. 
Idiots age much earlier and die younger than normal people. 
Too rapid growth seems connected with this. Geoffroy St. Hiliare 
(Hist. des Nom., 17th ed., Vol. I, p 197) has given full particulars 
of a boy of six who was five feet high and broad in proportion. His 
growth was so rapid that it could almost be seen. He had a beard, 
looked like a man of thirty, and had every indication of perfect 
puberty. He hadafull, deep bass voice, and his extraordinary 
strength fitted him for all country work. At five he could carry 
any distance three measures of rye weighing 84 lbs., and at six 
years and a few months he could easily carry on his shoulders bur- 


72 SCOTT : 


This so farrepresents. merely a continuous productability of 
function in connection with assimilation. But a producta- 
bility which is stored up and discharged by an outer stimu- 
Jus of environment will be much more economical, and will 
give rise to what we find as reflex excitability. When this 
reflex work- product dominates, according to circumstances, 
function will sometimes be greater and sometimes less. If 
under these conditions assimilation keeps on continuously, 
there must sometimes be an overplus, sometimes a balance, 
and sometimes by excessive function death, and thus elimina- 
tion. To avoid this last, it is necessary that assimilation 
should depend upon use or upon astimulus which use calls 
forth. From the psychical side this stimulus is recognized as 
hunger. 

This kind of process where stimulus is an indispensable 
factor, is more special and limited than the more general pro- 
cess of assimilation plus movement, ete., but has character- 
istics which favor it greatly in the struggle for existence. 
‘¢ Connected with the most complete self-regulation of func- 
tioning is the greatest saving of material, while those parts 
always according to their use are strengthened and grow, the 
unused degenerate and the material for their subsistence is 
saved. 'This kind of process unites the greatest economy with 
the highest functioning of the whole, but at the cost of the, 
independence of the parts.’’! Senescence becomes thus a 
result of differentiation, in which the parts exist merely on 
account of the function which they perform for the whole. 
The senescing organs wither up like state officials after pen- 
sioning, although they may linger on as pensioners for a long 
time, and may even descend in this condition from genera- 
tion to generation, a fact which often allows of fresh starts 
in development. During the course of a life-time the organ- 
ism moves from a more general, more easily impressible condi- 
tion to one which is more perfectly mechanized. ‘Through 
a long period it becomes, through the continuous working of 
a given stimulus, more completely adapted to itself, and also 
more differentiated, and thereby more stable, so that an al- 
ways increasing opposition is formed to the additional de- 
velopment of new forms and characteristics.’’? 


dens weighing 150 lbs. But he did not become a giant, as every one 
expected. He soon got feeble, deformed, his intellectual faculties 
did not develop. He became idiotic and soon died. Bébé, the 
court fool of King Stanislas, had all the attributes of decrepitude at 
23 years. 

1<“Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus,’’ p. 224. 


2 Op. cit., p. 201. 





OLD AGE AND DEATH. ve 9 


Dantec,! while opposing himself to Roux in many points, 
really offers a simpler form of Roux’s conception of over- 
compensation of used material. According to him function 
and assimilation are not to be separated at all. He evidently 
rejects the ordinary analogy of a machine capable of wearing 
out or running down (fatigue), and regards the activity of 
every cell or plastid as a chemical combination in which the 
substances which increase the growth of the plastid are added 
to the living matter. During the same reaction, however,there 
. may be-by-products formed, which, until their removal from 
the neighborhood, stand in the way of future reaction (fatigue, 
senility, etc.). Dantec also simplifies the question of death 
by emphasizing the fact that what dies is always the cell or 
plastid, or a number of them. The death of a many-celled in- 
dividual is nothing additional or independent of this. 

Longevity and Natural Selection. Whether senility or 
death is ultimately the most deeply-rooted in the vital pro- 
cess, there seems to be no doubt that in the case of man as 
compared with the animals most closely related to him, the 
last of the old age period at least, has come in as a survival, 
which is correlated with, if it does not owe its existence in 
the struggle for existence to the greater development of the 
higher moral and sympathetic qualities of the race.? Other 
reasons, however, have prepared the way, or assisted in this 
result. Among many of the lower animals a long life is fre- 
quently a necessity for the species, when it is associated with 
decreased fertility or lack of ability to raise ofispring. 
Eagles, for example, live to about 60, but owing to the dan- 
gers to which the eggs and young are exposed from weasels, 
mice, etc.,? it takes about this time to successfully raise a 
pair. Many plants and animals, on the other hand, make 
up for their short lives by great fertility. This distinction, it 
is evident, is only of value when comparing species, and is of 
very little significance for the individual. With some ani- 
mals, as with man, where the period for raising the young is 
long, it is found that life is normally increased to this extent 
beyond the actual sexual period.* 

But beyond the immediate value for the offspring, in man 
at least there is an added value in old age for the tribe and 


1 Rev. Phil., Feb., Mar., 1896. 

mor. MM. ‘Humphrey, M. D., “Old Age,’’ 1889, p. 8. 
. §> Weissmann, ‘‘The Duration of Life,” p. 13. 

4 With man the period of growth is variously put, and is actually 
different in different peoples and classes, the higher classes of the 
highest races not ceasing to grow physically till about 30. If the 
grand climacteric be placed at 50 (often earlier), this would give 80 
years as the normal life-time, the latter 30 years of which is held in 
fee for the support and education of the young. 


74 SCOTT : 


race. Dr. Gascom! points out that personal, family and 
national prosperity and affluence are increased by longevity, 
and thinks that ‘‘longevity, peace and liberty would 
bless all the world with abundance.’’? In early races 
old men were the convenient and portable libraries, offering 
a means of ready reference to past experience. If they were 
not actually the leaders in times of strain and stress, they 
were very generally the counselors, the prophets, and the seers. 

But while the practical results of old age have probably 
been favorable, this cannot be expected to have been foreseen 
or calculated upon. Unreasoning sympathy, an extension of 
the love for wife and child, has been the deepest motive 
power. This even becomes intellectualized abnormally in a 
kind of fetichism, instead of resulting in a calculation on the 
greatest good for the greatest number,which, despite the pos- 
sibility of exceptions of individuals like Bentham and J. S. 
Mill, has never yet become a motive for masses of men. With 
certain tribes of South Australia, for example, itis taboo to 
catch or eat certain animals until they (the Australians) reach 
an advanced age. They are convinced that the most evil 
consequences would result to themselves individually if this 
rule should be broken. These animals, it is observed, arejust 
those which are the easiest to catch, are perfectly wholesome 
and nutritious, and thus the best adapted for old people’s 
use. A large proportion of the motives which govern our 
treatment of the old to-day are really only more refined, al- 
though sometimes equally superstitious, and perhaps equally 
beneficial fetichisms. 

From the point of view of natural selection to the question 
whether old age is to be regarded as an abnormal phenome- 
non on account of the small number of people who 
attain it, as Montaigne suggested,* or whether the most 
of men should naturally reach a much greater age,+ that men 
do not die, but kill themselves, it might be replied that the 
present condition where only a few reach anelderly age may 
be the most serviceable for the race in its present state. As 
G. M. Beard points out,® the majority of people in all lands are 
muscle-workers rather than brain-workers, and quotes Dr. 
Mitchell as having shown that if of the population of Scot- 
land a few. thousands were destroyed or degenerated and 
their places unsupplied, the nation would fall downwards to 


1 Prize essay on ‘‘ Longevity ’’ written for Assurance Co., Boston, 
1869. 

fe YU 

3 Essay on ‘‘Age.”? 

4100-150, as Flourens held possible. 

> “¢American Nervousness,’’ 1881, p. 97. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 75 


barbarism. But if these do exist, a superfluity may be un- 
necessary. Leaders, prophets, seers, are in the way if in 
too great a number, and it may be better for men to ‘kill 
themselves ”’ in effective service, even if not of the rarest 
kind, than to go on to an old age full of nothing but selfish- 
ness, weakness and discontent. 

On the other hand, the results of Humphrey, which show 
that old age is correlated with large families, lead us to ex- 
pect a gradual increase in old age and just’ among those 
stocks which have been successful in serving the basal al- 
truistic functions of the race. The more radiated altruisms 
also seem favored in the struggle for longevity. Dr. G. M. 
Beard,” believes he has established from statistics that 
brain-working classes live longer than muscle- working classes, 
and ‘‘that the greatest and hardest brain-workers of his- 
tory have lived longer on the average than brain-workers 
of ordinary ability and industry.’’ Donaldson* shows from 
the present admittedly meagre statistics that the curve of 
brain weight rises with eminent men to 65 years, while it falls 
from 55 in other classes. Clergymen are particularly long- 
lived, while born criminals and idiots age quickly and die 
young.* Neurasthenics,® generally of an overdeveloped type, 
are long-lived, although not prolific, as if they represented 
the last effort of goodstock. 

When these distinctions depend upon choice of professions, 
it has been usual to assume that the character of the occupa- 
tion exercises the determining influence, although it may just 
as reasonably be held that the naturally long-lived, some- 
times by a sort of instinct, as Dr. Gascom® thinks, choose 
professions where rewards are not obtained till late in life. 
Farr’ shows that the greatest commercial value of a laborer 
is at 25, that of a professional man about 40. As Beard 
says:5 ‘* With muscle-workers there is but little accumula- 
tion and only a limited increase of reward; and in old age, 
after their strength has begun to decline, they must, with in- 
creasing expense, work even harder than before. 

The literary or scientific worker goes on from strength to 
Strength, until what was at 25 impossible, and at 30 dif- 
ficult, at 35 becomes easy and at 40 a pastime.’’ The oppor- 


1 Op. cit., p. 40. 

? Paiiesoua Nervousness,’’? chap. on Old eae! p. 195. 

3 «Growth of the Brain,’”’ p. 324. 

: ee “homme criminel.” Strahan, ‘‘Suicide and Insanity,”’ 


p.1 
Beard, Krafft-Ebing et al. 
cit. 


6 


7 Vital vain for 1885.”’ 
8 Op. cit., p. 2 


76 SCOTT : 


tunity to choose a profession also is generally associated 
with wealth and thrift, which represents ancestral effort, and 
increases with old age. The correlation is just as marked in 
one way of looking at it as the other. Both factors have 
probably had their due effect. 

Involution. It must be admitted that the phenomenon of 
involution entails ultimately a general decay and weakening of 
most of the physiological functions. Height and weight de- 
crease. Locomotion and digestion are impaired. ‘The cir- 
culation is feeble, the temperature frequently lower. In 
many cases the blood becomes uremic and venous. The 
arteries harden or the muscular coats undergo fatty degenera- 
tion. ‘The testicles become dense and decrease in volume 
and weight, although spermatozoids are found in half the 
eases to the latest age,4 some observers, however,? de- 
scribing them as weak and languishing. The prostate fre- 
quently hypertrophies. The ovaries become entirely ob- 
literated, and the vagina sometimes disappears. In thebrain 
the cells atrophy and many of the associational fibres disap- 
pear, while the connective tissue hypertrophies and takes their 
place, or more or less hydrocephalus efiects the same result. 
Ottolenghi® finds that sensibility to pain increases toward 
adult life and diminishes with old age, but that with adults sen- 
sibility varies more with social station and grade of degenera- 
tion than with age. In morbid cases melancholia* and demen- 
tia, in line with the general lack of susceptibility to acute 
diseases, is more frequent proportionally to other insanities 
than in earlier years. All the magnificent and touching 
poetry of the last chapter of Ecclesiastes is abundantly sup- 
ported by the details of modern science. 

As to the order in which this involution occurs, a great 
variety of opinions. has been advanced.  Reveille-Parise® 
thought that deficient oxidation connected with lessened 
vascularity of the respiratory organs was the first sign of 
failure, thus with the ancients making the breath (spirdtus 
animus, etc.) the fount of life. Stephens (‘‘Long Life’’) onthe 
other hand suggests that excessive oxidation is the proximate 
cause of senescence, showing itself in dryness of the skin and 
wasting of the organs generally. The theories of Lendl, 
Dantec, Delage, already referred to, in regarding failure to 





'Duplay, Arch. gen. de Med., 1843, 1855. 
* Reveille- Parise, ‘‘Traité de la Viellesse,”” Paris, 1853. 
“Das Gefiihl und das Alter,” Zetischrift fir Psy. u. Phys. der Sinnes- 
organe, Jan., 1896. 
; ‘Sixty-seven per cent. according to Fiirstner, Arch. fiir Psy., pp. 
65. 
> Op. cit., p. 36. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. ‘er 4 


carry on a chemical process as the ultimate cause, involve 
respiration as only one of the necessary conditions. Ham- 
elin thought the continuance of ossification, especially as af- 
fecting the thorax, as the essential point of departure. Cazalis, 
followed by many others in more recent times, regarded 
arterio-sclerosis with its consequences of renal and liver dis- 
ease, cirrhosis, toxic blood, and various kinds of apoplexies, 
as the starting point of senility. Bouchard thinks that old 
age begins with a failure in nutrition, and traces diabetes, 
gout, obesity, etc., to this source. This, as Andre! points 
out, is hardly a distinction, the question rather being, where 
does nutrition begin to fail? In answer to this Tilt,? basing 
his opinion on a large collection of cases, refers the initial 
failure to the sympathetic ganglia which innervate and con- 
trol the blood vessels of the great viscera, an involution 
which is first shown in the reproductive functions. Follow- 
ing Haller, he regards the sympathetic as an off-shoot of the 
cerebro-spinal system, an opinion which is supported by the 
facts of recent embryology. This failure in the sympathetic 
shows itself about the time of the grand climactericin general 
malaise, sleeplessness or excessive sleep, blushings, slight 
nervous troubles, with their psychical correlations of uneasi- 
ness, irritability, slight melancholia. On the other hand 
the more serious nervous troubles, according to his care- 
fully elaborated statistics, are much more frequent earlier 
in life. From an estimation of the cases admitted dur- 
ing ten years to the Bethlem Hospital for the Insane, 
he shows that liability to insanity for women is great- 
est at 36 to 40, and diminishes from 40 to 55.3 He sup- 
ports this by the fact that deaths from brain disease, as 
shown by the Registrar General’s reports, are most fre- 
quent. in women from 20 to 40, results in accordance 
with the statistics of Haslam, Pinol, Esquirol, and Foedéré. 
With men, the period of greatest liability is from 40 to 60. 
Deaths from all kinds of nervous diseases are only 113% 
of the whole, about half of which are due to infant eclamp- 
sia, and occur about 5 or 6. Of the remaining moiety, it 
is to be remembered that a large proportion, more than 
half, are directly due to arterial degeneration, and not pri- 
marily an affection of that portion of the brain which sub- 
serves the higher psychical functions,°® while here, too, are to 


1“T? Hygiene des Viellards,’’ Paris, 1890, p. 36. 
2 “Change of Life,’’ 1882. 
3 Op. cit., p. 115. 
; BGT. as Curve given by Althaus, ‘‘Diseases of the Nervous Sys- 
em, oe) p. 


78 SCOTT : 


be found the cases of phylogenetic degeneration evidently not 
due to the influence of old age. 

By another way, however, through the support of the cere- 
bro-spinal system to the sympathetic, the former may in- 
directly affect the innervation, the lack of which results in 
arterial aneurisms, lack of elasticity, ete.1_ Hammond, for ex- 
ample,” points out that traumatic lesions of the marrow are 
complicated with functional trouble of the cervical sym- 
pathetic. ‘‘ These cases go to show that the cervical sympa- 
thetic draws a great part of its nervous action from the 
Superior segment of the spinal cord.’’ Claude Bernard® 
showed that if an animal was debilitated, excision of the 
cervical sympathetic resulted in mucous suppuration of the 
bronchi, etc., a trouble which Humphrey* notes as one of 
the commonest affections of old age. The value of the tone 
of the cerebro-spinal system to the height of the blood-pres- 
sure, proximately mediated by the sympathetic, is shown by 
Owsjannikow,° who demonstrated that removing layer after 
layer of the trunk causes a fall of manometrical pressure be- 
fore the pons (circulation centre) has been reached. Gley® sup- 
plements this by showing that cutting off the medulla causes 
a fall in pressure, cutting out the spinal cord a greater fall, 
after which, however, contraction of the blood vessels was 
still possible in reaction to the injection of certain chemical 
substances, thus proving the partial independence of the 
sympathetic as well as the support afforded by the spinal 
system. 

The importance of this connection is witnessed by many 
more purely psychological phenomena. Mosso (‘‘La Peur,’’ 
e. g.) has made special studies on blushing (less prevalent 
in age) and cerebral circulation. Careful experiments with 
the plethysmograph in many psychological laboratories have 
shown the almost instantaneous influence of psychical im- 
pressions on the circulation of various parts of the body. 

In face of death by starvation, the most typical of all forms 
of death, it has been abundantly demonstrated that while all 
the other organs of the body gradually atrophy, the heart, 
the kidneys, and more especially the brain, remain exempt. 


*The smaller vessels of the brain itself are not generally sup- 
posed to be supplied with sympathetic fibres, which, if a fact, 
would only result in making the strain of a weakening sympathetic 
fall primarily upon the other organs. 

> “Diseases of the Nervous System,’’ 1890, p. 866. 

3 “Path. du Sys. Nerv.,” T. II., p. 535. 

4 Op. cit. 

* Quoted by Meynert, ‘‘Psychiatry,”’ trans. by Sachs, 1885, p. 206. 

° Arch. de Phys. n. et p., Brown-Sequard, 1894, p. 202. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 79 


As Mosso says,! ‘‘ the last overflow of the vital material of 
the body is sent by the last heart-beat to the brain.’”? He 
points out that increased nervous stimulability of the brain in 
face of starvation would be a favoring factor in natural selec- 
tion. The flaring up of dormant faculties just before death is, 
no doubt, an expression of a similar condition. ? 

With the approach of old age there seems to be plenty of 
cases which follow an order of involution which is not descend- 
ing. Muscular power, for example, generally fails before the 
capacity to direct the labor of others. Humphrey, from re- 
ports of 900 cases observed by medical and scientific men, 
notes ‘‘ how many of the very aged are in good possession 
of their mental faculties, taking a keen interest in passing 
events, forming a clear judgment upon them, and full of 
thought for the present and future welfare of others.’’? Even 
in centenarians ‘‘ the brain held out as well or better than 
the other organs.’’* In green old age (age de retour) there 
can hardly be any doubt that the intellectual qualities are 
even relatively improved. Balfour,® following Beneke® 
and other anatomists, points out a rather remarkable adapta- 
tion which favors the brain, namely, that while the other 
arteries of the body may be completely calcified, the internal 
carotids and vertebral, which feed the brain, normally re- 
main soft and yielding. Towards old age also, the heart 
normally hypertrophies, beats faster, and correlated with these 
changes the blood itself actually increases in hemoglobin, and 
when these changes do not occur at the proper age the whole 
physical and mental health suffers. Heart stimulants, e. g., 
digitalis and strychnine, the latter of which at least acts 
primarily on the nervous system, are found highly successful, 
often changing at this period of life the anemic and dejected 
individual into a healthy and active old man. The most 
commonly repeated difficulty of either the natural or the arti- 
ficial adaptation for old age, appears to be degenerative 
changes in the internal arterial coats (which may be primarily 
caused by lack of innervation). These either by coming off 
in pieces and forming plugs, or by pocketing in weak spots 
(miliary aneurisms, e. g.), give rise to hemiplegias and apo- 
plexies of various kinds. The maxim of Cazalis, ‘‘a man is 
the age of his arteries,’’ although by no means applicable to 
every case, seems to be supported by greater numbers than 
the descending degeneration theory of involution. 


1<Die Ermiidung,’’ p. 285. 

* Cf. Féré, ‘‘Path. des Emotions,”’ p. 170 et seq. 
3 Op. cit., p. 24. 

4Op. cit., p. 48. 

°G. W. Balfour, ‘“‘The Senile Heart,’’ 1894. 

6 Die Altersdisposition.”’ 


80 SCOTT ; 


Even in the etiology of the distinctly mental troubles of old 
age,recent opinion shows an increasing tendency to givea large 
place to causes of a somatic nature. Of mental diseases gen- 
erally, Dr. Rohé} states that the view that many mental dis- 
turbances are due to auto-intoxication is gaining ground 
among alienists, and cites to this effect Price, Kerkley, 
Lash, Emminghaus, and Kraepelin. Norberry? claims that 
‘senile dementia’? covers diseases ‘‘ essentially different 
in nature and symptoms.’’ J. A. Houston? examined the 
blood of fifty-two melancholiacs, and found hemoglobin de- 
ficient in every case. The editor of the Jour. of the Am. 
Med. Assn.* thinks that most of the cases of mental confusion 
in old age may be due to uremic intoxication. Ludwig 
Wille® ascribes the pathological mental involution as origi- 
nating in ‘‘ derangements of the circulation and nutrition of 
the central nerve substance caused by the morbid condition 
of the organs of circulation,’’ a view in which Kraepelin in 
his chapter on old age coincides.© W. F. Farquharson’ an- 
alyzed 230 cases of melancholia during twenty-seven years, and 
says, ‘‘ Leaving out of consideration hereditary disposition 
and previous attacks, the cause of melancholia was found in a 
marked preponderance of cases to be of a physical nature.’’ 
Notzli® brings to view the great prevalence of lesions due to 
arterial degeneration. He carefully weighed the different 
parts of the brain in 110 cases, and found that the cortex lost 
considerably less than the basal ganglia. Within the cortex 
the frontal lobes did not lose more than the occipital. Senile 
dementia is, however, in the most of cases more probably a 
phenomenon of phylogenetic degeneration, and is not to be re- 
garded as a peculiar characteristic of old age. Krafit-Ebing 
and Lombroso claim that senile dementia is more frequent 
with the morally insane and born criminals than with other 
classes. ® 

From these facts it would seem as if Roux’s conception of 
a liberating stimulus to the lower ranges of assimilation origi- 
nating in and controlled by the highest work-product, would 
be fulfilled by some such relationship of the cerebro-spinal 


and sympathetic nervous system as Tilt suggests, when the . 


stimulus to nutrition is to be regarded as the last or the most 


1 “Mental Diseases,’’? Medical Annual, 1894. 
? Hosp. Bulletin of 2nd Univ. Hosp., Aug., 792. 
3 Boston Med. and Surg. Jour., Jan. 18, 1894. 
- 4“Psychoses of Old Age,’’ Nov. 30, 1895. 
> **Old Age and its Psychoses,’’ Hack Tuke’s Dict., p. 869. 
6 *“Kompendium der Psychiatrie,’’ Leipsic, 1883, p. 367. 
7 Jour. of Mental Science, London, Jan., Apr., 1894. 
8 “Ueber Dementia Senilis,’’? 1895. 
°*Lombroso, ‘‘L’homme criminel,” p. 569. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 81 


complete form of the general nervous activity, and that the 
body, as far as it is an organism, is so mainly because there 
is thus brought into immediate connection the extremest 
functions of the organism. The human body is, first of all, 
an organism, and the organs of relation are thus in normal 
cases the most permanent and enduring. 

Despite these facts, however, since the days of Bichat and 
earlier, there have not been wanting authors, principally 
alienists, to hold that the failure of old age begins normally 
at.the top. In the present times Ribot, Ross and Mercier 
have adopted this theory. Mercier! regards the essen- 
tial phenomena of old age as a cutting off of the most 
recent and most highly developed brain layers. Old age 
is like a frost-blight, which nips the buds the latest 
grown. He and Ribot? also seem not to distinguish 
very clearly between the phylogenetic development, re- 
peated and appropriated by the individual, and the mere 
repetition of actions in time in as far as this refers to 
old age. Memory of recent events no doubt fails in old age. 
But what evidence have we for supposing that these acts of 
memory presuppose any new brain growth, such as would be 
necessary if we are to use a simile like that of the budding 
tree, or the upper and lower brain levels of Mercier’s 
theory? ‘The really most recently grown structure (like the 
city which has originated from the surrounding country, used 
as a storage depot and an organ of control) may be just as 
permanent as any other, or more so, except under the strain 
of distinctly degenerative (phylogenetic) causes. No doubt 
in an ultimate sense we must admit the complete co-determi- 
nation of structure and function, but this does not excuse us 
for running away with crude ideas of structure, wholly de- 
rived from the limited range of present observation. In brain 
matters particularly, our knowledge of function is vastly 
ahead of that of structure. Memory, it must be remembered, 
is no mere partial faculty. It is really a fundamental quality 
of all tissue. And with the loss of memory that comes 
from hemiplegia and similar morbid causes, which give 
the greatest number of cases of aphasia upon which the 
Strongest argument rests for degenerative senile involu- 
tion, we have frequently a portion of the brain entirely 
destroyed, so that no vital quality, memory or otherwise 
is left behind. Where this focalized lesion attacks the lan- 
guage centres, there are no doubt many cases in which ina 


1“Sanity and Insanity.”’ 
2 ** Diseases of Memory.”’ 
3 “Memory in Disease,’’ Strahan, e. g. 


82 SCOTT : 


general way the degeneration begins at the top of these cen- 
tres; but there are others where this does not seem to be the 
order followed, and besides this there are many Cases, as 
Bastian! points out, ‘‘where aphasia has been most complete, 
but the mental powers have been well preserved.’’ The num- 
ber of cases, too, where the left brain (the centre of language) 
is affected do not seem to be the greatest. Brown-Sequard 
found, of 121 cases of hemiplegia, the left brain was affected 
in twenty-four, the right in ninety-seven cases. ? 

The normal failure of memory, so-called, in old people is 
really a failure of recollection of certain events in preference 
to certain others. This may not be due to descending degen- 
eration. Recollection, while it presupposes memory, is yet 
something more. In the first place it depends directly upon 
blood circulation and drops out in sleep. Here it must be 
admitted that Mercier has the courage of his conviction, and 
is consistent with himself in saying that sleep itself is a form 
of dementia, indeed the ‘‘last and most complete stage of 
dementia known as coma,’’? an extreme which surely indi- 
cates the necessity for more careful distinctions. 

Old people may dwell upon youth and early married life 
because it was their happiest period, while, as far as we have 
any proof, this is the period of the formation of the highest 
layers, the latest buds, ete. The only way, if we are to ap- 
ply recapitulation, is to compare memories, 2. e., capacities 
formed in early childhood with those later on while still in 
the course of recapitulated phylogenetic development. Be- 
yond this period there exists a more purely ontogenetic 
development which has not had the same necessity for be- 
ing so thoroughly established in philogeny, to which the cri- 
terion of race development does not apply to the same degree. 
Peculiarities of the individual, or of his immediate ancestry, 
aS Roux and Darwin mention, come out more strongly. 
These of course may form the new material for selection 
and may result from a new creation, or from a pathological 
condition or decay. Geddes, indeed, is of the opinion that 
all sports or variations may be originally pathological. The 
beginning and continuance of senescence may thus be the 
most important of all the periods of life for the origination 
of fresh development. But in any case we are not in a posi- 
tion to apply the recapitulation theory. 

Instead of a fresh budding of growth, the recollection of 
events may just as well be compared to the sending of a train, 


1“ Paralysis from Brain Disease,’’ p. 198. 
*Quoted by Bastian. Op. cit., p. 209. 
3 Op. cit., p. 299. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 83 


for example, between New York and Chicago. That the train 
does not pass is no proof that the track is destroyed. There 
may be at the time or for short notice (the inelasticity of age) 
no coal or no crew. Sono doubt in imperfect recollection we 
have a lowered state of the physical organism, which is sim- 
ilar to, and perhaps caused by, greater slowness and imper- 
fection of digestion and circulation as well as by general 
physical decay, but which is no proof that there is greater 
structural or permanent functional impairment of the higher 
brain-paths than of others, or of the brain itself as compared 
with the rest of the body. 

Here early writers, Bichat for example, seem to have initi- 
ated a faulty way of looking at the brain, in drawing so strict 
a distinction between the animal and the vegetative functions. 
Careful measurements now show us that in sleep, as in other 
lowered functional conditions, such as old age, the vegetative as 
well as the psychical functions are materially lessened, and we 
have no right to regard the plastids of the brain, which only 
more specially subserve animal or psychical functions, as not 
being just as vegetative and just as much organs of digestion 
as any others in the body. We have here not a question of 
specialized vegetative functions of the really living proto- 
plasm. The plastids of the stomach, for example, are as 
capable of being starved as any other, since nervous stimulus 
is necessary for their activity, and the food which they use is 
furnished by the blood as for any other organ. 

The body, although in itself an imperfect organism, is, in 
fact, as Roux insists, a collection of parts which are them- 
selves again imperfect organisms. The vegetative functions, 
meaning by this simply the basal qualities of assimilation and 
digestion, belong to every plastid. Among these, however, 
a struggle for existence takes place, the results of which are 
more marked in old age than in any other period, but for the 
just estimation of which we must not confine ourselves to any 
one class of phenomena, and more especially when these are 
of an admittedly morbid, 7. e., phylogenetically degenerative 
character. 

The truth seems to be that in the struggle for existence 
among the various organs, through the course of a life-time, 
certain of these, partly through hereditary strength, and 
partly through a greater compensation due to exercise, or 
for their opponents either over or under use, obtain an ad- 
vantage over the others, which, when it becomes so marked 
as to deplete some other necessary organ, results at last in 
debility and death. The organism in old age thus loses its 
power of self-regulation and, as Johannes Muller! recognized, 


1“ Phystologie,’? Coblenz, 1844, Bd. II, S. 767. 
6 


84 SCOTT : 


is to be compared ‘‘ more to an ingenious mechanism than to 
that basal form of the organic whole which produces the 
mechanism from itself, and makes it capable of compensat- 
ing for its loss. Therefore in old age a very small outer 
strain is able to bring to an end the whole, as is the case with 
a mechanism.”’ 

Even when the good adjustment and balance of the several 
parts which are necessary to a healthy old age exists, ‘‘a time 
comes at length when in the course of the descending devel- 
opmental processes, the several components of the machine, 
slowly and much, though equally, weakened, fail to answer to 
one another’s call, which is also weakened ; a time when the 
nervous, the circulatory and the respiratory organs have not 
force enough to keep one another going; when the wheels 
stop rather than are stopped, and a developmental or phys- 
iological death terminates the developmental or physiological 
decay. The old man who had gone to bed, apparently much 
as usual, is found dead in the morning, as though life’s engine 
had been unable to repair itself in sleep sufficiently to bear 
the withdrawal of the stimulus of wakefulness. Or some ex- 
ertion may be followed by too great exhaustion. Dr. Willis, 
the attendant upon King George III, at the age of 90, after a 
walk of four miles to see a friend, sat down in his chair and 
went to sleep, or was thought to be asleep, but he did not 
wake again. Or some slight scarcely noticed excitement may 
have the same result. <A cattle dealer, aged 98, who attended ~ 
Norwich cattle market on a Saturday of last year, soon after 
talking and laughing somewhat heartily with a few friends 
on the following Tuesday, was found to be dead. Or a slight 
indisposition, further lowering the status and force of some 
organ, fatally disturbs the feebly maintained equilibrium. 
A lady, aged 94, attended the early service at church, walk-. 
ing a distance of a quarter of a mile, to and fro, caught a 
slight cold and died in the night.’’! — 

Among the different organs there is none whose normal . 
activity conduces more to the best balance of the various 
parts than does the brain. This, indeed, along with the stor- 
age necessary for such a task, appears to be its principal 
function. It is thus easily understood why the intellectual 
and liberal professions allow the greatest opportunity for 
longevity. Ultimately the forces of life are controlled and 
stimulated by the highest development of the work-product 
of assimilation, represented in our psychical life as thoughts 
and feelings. Intellectual labor, em@gtional susceptibilities, 
ideals and aspirations, and their wise direction by a fully 


‘Humphrey, op. cit., p. 6. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 85 


cultivated art of education, are thus functions which without 
transcending the here and now of a strictly biological sphere, 
tend to increase the vigor and the length of life. 

With the beginning of the grand climacteric and the in- 
crease of age, the individual qualities per se assert themselves, 
with of course only a relatively greater strength. These 
qualities are, however, formed in the earlier periods of life 
and in contact with the great passions which underly them, 
the brain, as the highest work-product of assimilation, offer- 
ing the means for radiation. In these periods it has been 
necessary in the course of natural selection for the individual 
to be held under by the race. But with the age of descent he 
passes out to a certain extent from the protecting shadow of 
the phylogenetic life and becomes more ontogenetic and indi- 
vidual. Old age is the period of distinction. Jt is in line 
with this that it is a period of extremes among individuals, 
which may account for the fact that authors have differed so 
much in describing its features. Cicero, for example, praises 
old age, while Aristotle condemns it. Melancholy, irrita- 
bility, egoism increases; so does good health, calmness, sac- 
rifice. Samuel Rogers, the poet, said he never knew what 
health was till he was 55. . It is the race life, however, that 
is normally the source of our greatest force and happiness, 
and old age is only successful when it has so absorbed this 
life that its more intellectual service becomes its deepest mo- 
tive and highest happiness. In maturity we serve the race 
by the blind impulsion of instinct if in no other way, but in 
old age much more because we elect to do so. In this respect 
old age is really the test of life from an individual standpoint. 
Solon’s apothegm, a man can never be pronounced happy 
until he is dead, had no doubt some such significance. 

The questionnaire. With the aim in view of obtaining a 
general picture of the common notions on the subject of old 
age, death and the future life, the questionnaire subjoined? 


1Cf. George Meredith’s poem on ‘‘ Old Age.”’ 


* TOPICAL SYLLABUS FOR GENETIO PSYCHOLOGY. 
(Second Series, Academic Year, 1895-6.) 
IV. THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS ABOUT OLD AGE, DISEASE AND DEATH. 


I. Asachild, how old were people you thought aged? How long 
did you want to live? How did you fancy old people felt, thought, 
etc.? Did youlove the companionship of any old people, and what 
traits in elderly people attracted and what repelled you? 

II. Asachild, when and how did you make your first acquaint- 
ance with death, with details, and how it affected you? What were 
your earliest ideas about corpses, funerals, hearses, coffins, shrouds, 
mourning, the grave, and what took place in it? Did you think of 
worms, bones, etc., or conceive the body as feeling cold, damp, 


86 SCOTT : 


dark, or shut in and smothered down? Did you have spells of 
dwelling on such things, and did you develop any mental imagery 
of the soulin or leaving the body, or what it was, or where, or its 
state? Was it gaseous, luminous, easily blown away, bluish, heart- 
shaped, resident in the head or breast, or what ? 

III. What diseases did you fear most for yourself or others? 
How did you think they acted? What accidents or other death- 
bringing agents did you develop most imagery about? Did you 
ever fancy yourself either dead or dying ? and, if so, tell all aboutit. 

IV. When in your teens, or later, did you ever have spells of 
dwelling on death, coquetting with flitting suicide thoughts, or day- 
dreaming how others would feel or act if you were found dead, and, 
if so, were these feelings or fancies associated with anger, love or 
religion, or any other experience, and how? At what period of 
life have you thought most of these things? Under what circum- 
stances have you ever thought suicide might be justifiable? How, 
when, and in what condition would you prefer to die? Have you 
ever been suddenly very near to death, and what were your feel- 
ings at the time and afterwards? What background feelings when 
a sense of the miserable shortness of life comes over you? 

V. Whatused to be and what are your deeper and most instinct- 
ive feelings, thoughts or questionings about a future life for your- 
self or others, and what changes have these sentiments undergone? 
Are these things fixed beliefs or fluctuating with moods? and, if the 
latter, describe your different sets of psychic states. How long 
after death do your thoughts run, and what used to be your fancies 
about heaven, souls, angelic occupation, association with friends, 
etc.? Do you have two sets of feelings — one hopes, taught be- 
liefs, and another to fall back on if the former should be more or 
less mistaken ? and, if so, describe them. What is your feeling 
about the friends you have lost? 

VI. Will you ask old people of your acquaintance to either write 
themselves or tell you whether they dread death, ifso, why? What 
they expect hereafter if they dwell much upon it, etc.? Ask them 
if they would like to live their life over again if it were to be the 
same, or to go on to death, and what changes, if any, would make 
a difference with their answer. Ask what period of life they con- 
sidered most worth living, and why. Also, what they dwell on most 
in the past. Ask about their sleep habits, and what they dream of, 
or what reveries they prefer to dwell in. Ask especially at what 
period of life they thought most of death. How they first realized 
they were growing old, and how each increasing sign of it made 
them feel, and especially ask them to state how the climacteric 
period affected them. Have they made wills, had life insured, di- 
rected about their funerals, and otherwise provided for the disposi- 
tion of their body or effects, and if not, why not? Get any points 
bearing on what might be called the psychic phenomena of increas- 
ing senescence. Have they ever longed for death, or felt life a 
disappointment or failure hardly worth living? 

VII. State any texts, hymns, phrases, proverbs, sermons, or 
literature, whether prose or poetry, or any expression or conver- 
sation, that have modified your feelings about these things. What 
is the best literature on old age you know? State also how loss of 
nearest friends or sudden death or prolonged suffering has affected 
FO OU Oe: What, if any, real sources of consolation have you 

ound ? 

VIII. State anything you know of the experience, past or 
present, of your confidential friends in these matters. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 87 


was issued some months ago by Pres. Hall and myself, to 
which were received answers from 226 persons. Our thanks 
are due to those friends who so kindly furnished us with re- 
turns, and in an especial manner to Miss Lillie Williams, 
professor of psychology in Trenton Normal School, by whose 
instrumentality a great number of them were obtained. 

The returns altogether have furnished nearly 15,000 
answers on various subjects, and as there were some 120 
questions, it will be seen that on an average only a little over 
half of the questions were answered by each. About sixty 
per cent. of the answers were from females, and although 
these were kept separate in working up the returns, there was 
not found to be sufficient practical difference between the 
sexes in the ideas mentioned to keep them separate in this 
report. 

The returns pertaining to childhood are specially valuable‘ 
as they are derived from reminiscence. A person will gen- 
erally tell what he thought asa child of such matters much 
more freely and without bias, than the child is able to tell 
himself, or than the adult will consent to tell of his present 
ideas. This latter point is indicated by the number who 
omit to give their present convictions with regard to the soul 
and the future life. The importance of child thought with 
regard to the future life has recently been emphasized by 
Runze. + 

In making curves and tables indicating quantitative results, 
those only which are decided and emphatic are considered as 
of value in comparison. For this reason the percentages are 


IX. Always state age of every experience, also sex and national- 
ity. Describe, briefiy, health, temperament, complexion, size, signs 
of age, as baldness, decrepitude of any sort in walking, vision, hear- 
ing, memory, whether good looking or deformed, etc. Also whether 
married happily, how long, how many children, their health and 
success, what circumstances, friends, etc. 

Send returns to 

G. STANLEY HALL, 
or CoLIN A. SCoTT. 
Clark University 
Worcester, Mass., Nov. 1, 1895. 


N. B. Please answer as many of these questions as you desire; 
or, if you should wish to ignore the questions altogether, and com- 
municate your impressions in your own way concerning any of the 
above topics, your contribution will still be of value, whatever form 
it takes. Every communication will be treated as strictly confi- 
dential, and in the report which will be sent those making returns, 
everything thought likely to betray the personality of the sender 
will be suppressed. Those not wishing returns can write anony- 
mously. 


“Psychologie der Unsterblichkeit.”’ 


88 SCOTT : 


kept in whole numbers. This perhaps should always be ob- 
served as one of the necessary safeguards of the questionnaire 
method. The individual cases, however, have an importance 
of their own, and sometimes the mere fact of a large number 
of erratic or unrepeated answers is not without quantitative 
value. These answers are on the whole like the sediment 
found in the bed of a stream, partly original or derived from 
the immediate surroundings, and partly the remains of ancient 
beliefs washed down by time, but full of fascinating problems 
for the psychological geologist. 

It is interesting in this connection to observe that many of 
these beliefs show signs of weakening and decay. The limited 
number who mention hell, for example, indicates a consider- 
able change from the days when, here in New England, the 
most widely circulated publication of its period (for 100 
years, says Tyler) was a poem (!) by the Rev. Michael Wig- 
glesworth. ‘This production, which children were compelled 
to memorize, gives the course of an argument between 
unbaptized babes condemned to eternal damnation on account 
of original sin, and the Lord Christ, in which the latter ob- 
tains the best of the argument, but with a show of mercy 
concludes : 

‘‘A crime it is, therefore in bliss 
You may not hope to dwell, 


But unto you I shall allow 
The easiest room in hell.’’ 


Rubric 1. Child’s Idea of the Thoughts and Feelings of 
Old People.+ Here it is perhaps natural to find that 80% of 
those who give returns on this point (104) take a pessimistic 
view. Of these 24% pity old people because they could not 
run and play ; 12% thought of them as tired and stiff; 14% 
as weak, miserable and unhappy ; tired of life, don’t enjoy, 
indifferent, 14%; felt in way, 6%; thought of nothing but re- 
ligion, reading the Bible, praying, and what they would do 
in heaven, 13%; nothing but read papers, sew, knit and can 
preserves, 12%; cross, 7%; thoughts of death, waiting for 
death, 19%; wishing they were young, 11%; as willing to die 
as live, 3%; want to die, 2%; died when they made up their 
minds to, 1%; rather be a little infant than die, 1%; were 
solemn, gloomy, stupid, sorry, sad, lonely, sleepy, conceited, ~ 
jealous, 16%; didn’t want others to enjoy, 3%; thought of 
nothing but the wrong things little children did, 2%; that 
nothing could hurt them, they could not cry, 3%; did no 
wrong, 1%; didn’t know if they did feel, 2%; never thought 
about them, 3%. 


1Cf. Rubric 4. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 89 


Of the 20% who took an optimistic view, 8% thought of 
old people as happy, that they were wise and knew every- 
thing (weather, e. g.), 7%; pleasant to have some one wait 
on you, 2%; do what.they pleased, 2%; looked forward to the 
time they would be children (cf. Sully), 2%; preferred to be 
old, 2%; enjoyed watching children play, 1%. 

It is evident from adding the percentages together that for 
both the optimistic and the pessimistic classes above men- 
tioned, one person may contribute to more than one of the 
subordinate expressions. 

Rubric 2. What Children Liked in Old People. Of 140 
returns, those who mention gifts, pennies, candies and eata- 
bles were 34%; telling stories, 21%; stories of childhood not 
included in last, 16%; kindness and petting, 16%; those who 
played with them, 10%; gave means for games and looked 
on, 8%; gray hair, 15%; caps, 6%; aprons, 2%; let help, 4%; 
interest in the things the child did, 4%; indulgent, 4%; in- 
tercession with parents, etc., 4%; advice, 2%; looked neat, 
2%; cleverness and knowledge, 2%; restfulness, 2%; never 
got angry, 1%; loved to be with, 7%; preferred to children’s 
society, 7%; no traits disliked, 4; generally liked, 21%. 

Sub-rubric. Individuals mentioned as specially liked were 
45 in number. Of these a grandmother was mentioned 24 
times (or by 24 individuals); a grandfather, 10 times; some 
old woman, 7 times ; some old man, twice; an aunt, once; 
and an uncle once. 

Rubric 3. What Children Disliked in Old People. 140 
returns. Wrinkles, 24%; untidiness, clothes, etc., 12%; to- 
bacco chewing, 11%; tobacco smoking, 2%; snuff-taking, 1%; 
tobacco in any form, 5%; liquor drinking, 1%; slow and tot- 
tering gait, 10%; trembling voice, 5%; slobbering, 4%; eating 
habits, 3%; forgetfulness, 4%; cross and scolding, 5%; bad: 
pronunciation, 2%; whiskers, 3%; bent form, gums, loss of 
teeth, 8%; sunken eyes, 2%; matter in eyes, 2%; gray hair, 
3%; advice, 2%; kissing, 2%; no traits liked, 2%; generally 
disliked, 10%. 

Sub-rubric. Individuals especially disliked, 10%: old 
woman, 3 times; old man, 3 times ; aunt, twice ; grandfather, 
once; grandmother, once. 

Rubric 4. Asa Child, what Age in others was Considered 
Old. 75 cases. 


Average of 24.5 years 53%, 
Average of ie hee 35% 
Average of CU.G.rusrt 12% 
Total average, oY Bes Sah 


Sub-rubric. Other indications of age besides years. 24 
cases. Of these white and gray hair was the sign in 12 cases ; 


90 SCOTT : 


4,confused old with grown ; 5, had no signs of age ;1, judged 
by trousers and long dresses; 1, by a full beard, and one 
thought that after a certain age a person did not get older. 

This rubric may be compared with Nos. 1, 2 and 3, where 
it is probable from the character of the answers that those 
making returns have in viewin the most of cases a greater 
age than the total average of 37 years given in rubric 4. It 
is, however,quite plain that children, although they no doubt 
discriminate the ages of their companions very keenly and 
even jealously, have a very hazy idea of the ages of adults. 
Up to the age of 17 the first of these characteristics shows 
itself. Seven of those who answered the questionnaire were 
careful to say they were 174 or 17 andso many months. From 
18 on there was no division of the years in giving the age. 
There is of course abundant reason for this in the rapid 
changes which characterize this period of life. 

Rubric 5. Wished to Live to what Age? (As a Child.) 
110 returns. Live to 100, 20%; several hundred, 1%; as 
far as could count, 1%; to average of 20 years old, 
14%; to average of 69, 25%; (total average of foregoing 
111 years, by 63%); live forever, 9%; no idea how long, 4%; 
till end of the world, 2%; be the last alive, 1%; very long, 
2%; at 40 (the pleasures of life then over), 3%; ‘‘not longer 
than ’’ an average of 56, 4%; when old get little again, 2%; 
when mother died, 1%; extinguished when too old to go school, 
1%. 

Eas five divisions may be more concretely illustrated by 
the following quotation from a return made by H. B., a lady 
of 33, happily married,with four children. This return is par- 
ticularly interesting as showing the transition of the child’s 
ideas towards those of adolescence. Itis evident that the 
dwelling on length of life in this case takes the place of 
dwelling on death referred to in the table on that subject, and 
comes in at the same age: 


When about 12 to 15 I always wanted to live till I was very old. 
It used to give me great pleasure to count the years by tens, because 
ten years seemed such an immense long time. In 10 years I’d be 
25, and beginning the life I wanted especially (that is, my marriage, 
which was always the beginning of my life). In10 years more, 35. It 
would take such a long time to pass. In 10 more I would be 45, and 
if I once could live to be 45, and go through the experiences I 
wanted, having a husband, a home, and children, I felt death 
would not be a great terror to me, but I felt it would be a terrible 
thing to be born and live, and not go through these experiences. 
I used to think (12 to 15) that death would not be so bad if I had 
my very own, part of myself, 7%. e., husband and children, to die 
with, and I feel this yet. When I would try to reflect—now you 
might die and not have this experience,—it is impossible to de- 
scribe how terrible it felt to me. I felt it would have been in vain 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 91 


‘to be born. But ifI reached 45, death would be robbed of its ter- 
aoe (I don’t have this feeling now, but would like to live to 75 at 
east. 

After 15 I felt (with a little scornfulness) that it would be impos- 
-sible for me to die—that it was certain that I would have these ex- 
periences that I longed for. 

At this time these emotions were played on a good deal by re- 
ligion. I frequently attended class meetings, revivals, etc. My 
‘companions were converted and tried to impress upon me that I 
was not saved. I felt if I was a Christian I would have to make the 
greatest sacrifices, do without gloves, etc., and would have to in- 
fluence other people to live good lives, and I did not feel able at 
this age to do so. But I thought I’ll live a good life now, but Ill 
‘postpone conversion till after !’m married. It will be so easy to be 
everything good after one is married. That would be a solving of 
all questions. Marriage was to be the opening up of my life in 
‘every respect: conversion, morality. I felt that I was willing to do 
all these things when I entered the married state. The texts, ‘‘ Her 
daughters shall arise and call her blessed,’’ and ‘‘ Her husband shall 
sit on high places,’’ used to thrill me. It makes me smile now—I 
“was so young to be thinking of such things. 

At this age and before it, I had no special reverence for old age. 
I thought it was a deplorable state to be in, and old people were 
always comparing themselves to their own disadvantage with 
youthful people—that it was always in their heads. But I used to 
try to make things easier for them. Knowing that my father (then 
about 60, and he is still living), had an aversion to speaking of old 
age, I never liked to have any one allude to it in his presence. 
‘When I was very young I noticed how his shoulders stooped, and 
used to like to take off his boots and put on his slippers. I wanted 
him to know that I loved him, and this was my way of expressing 
‘it. He never used to ask me, but thanked me, saying, ‘‘ That’s the 
lass!’’? but yet I never did it for the praise, but to show him that I 
loved him. I would follow him to the hall door and see that his 
-coat and hat were brushed, and took a pride in seeing him look 
‘young. I even brushed his boots so that he would not have to bend 
his back. The brighter I could get them the happier I would be. 
“The boys, my brothers,wouldn’t do it. I used to bribe the boys, give 
them things of my own, and plead with them to cut the wood, etc., 
‘so that father would have no anxiety. I used to try to economize 
on his account. I did all this with mixed feelings of love and pity, 
‘used to sob for his old age. I never experienced anything of this 
kind with my mother. 

After 16, when I was beginning to get introduced to young men, 
I began to get more selfish, and to think more of my personal ap- 
‘pearance, but I could not bear the thought of my father dying. I 
‘used to sob and cry often with the thought that my father was old 
and did not have many years to live. 


Rubric 6. Wished to Live to what Age? (As an Adult.) 
48 returns. Before feeble or very old, 32%; when work or 
ambition is complete, 20%; in midst of work, 2%; average of 
60 years, 16%; to 100 years, 2%; as long as possible, 4%; 
when old, 6%; never die, 2%; never thought of it, 10%. 

Rubric 7. Aged People’s Desire for Life. 16 cases, of 
an average age of 76 years. Would not care to live life over, 
94%; would like to live life over, 6%; longed to die, 70%; 


92 SCOTT : 


have not longed to die, 30%; thought most of death in later 
years, 44%; most in childhood, 14%; life best worth living in 
youth and early marriage, 60%; not worth living now, 
14%. 

Illustrative case. Married male, 65 years old, does not believe 
in future life. Have asked several old people, myself included, 
whether they would like to live their lives over again if it was to 
be the same, with the same trials, temptations and struggles for an 
existence. Most every one says ‘“‘ goon to death.”? Some think if 
they had their present knowledge they might try again. 


Rubric 8. How Prefer to Die? (Adults.) 98 returns. Aver- 
age age, 22%; short illness,35%; suddenly, 21%; by lightning, 
3%; drowning, 3%; long illness, 1%; old age, 4%; consump- 
tion, 3%; when conscious, 8%; unconscious, 5%; with no 
pain, 9%; ready to meet God, 5%; heroically or in some 
cause, 3%; surrounded by friends (grandchildren mentioned 
by two young girls), 23%; at home, 6%; away from those who 
would feel badly, 1%; at sea, 2%; no preference,1%. News- 
holme’s?! notion that the most of people would prefer to die of 
old age does not seem to be borne out by these returns. 

Rubric 9. The First Impressions of Death, the Grave, etc. 
On this topic the returns are remarkably numerous, being 
204 out of a total of 226. They are also very full of descrip- 
tion, often descending to the minutest detail. 98 of the re- 
turns do not give the date of their earliest impression. This. 
fact is of importance in comparing the relative numbers of the 
unfavorable and favorable mentions of table on pages 93-94, 
with the curves representing the results in the dated returns. 
It will be seen that the increased age has increased the un- 
favorable mentions. 

The following condensation of a number of cases, where M. 
stands for male and F. for female, will give an idea of the 
material used :— 

F.—1. Hearses pretty; wondered why we never went to drive in 
one; fond of mourning; wanted to have a black dress; grave a place 
where they put the body till the judgment day, when it was resur- 
rected; never thought of worms. F.—2. Thought God came and 
took you out of the grave shortly after you were covered up; 
thought three or four days after a person was buried, he left the grave — 
by an underground passage, and went to heaven in the night time 
when it was dark and no one saw him. F.—3. Thought it lovely to 
have a new dress and a long, black veil; always desired to have a 
doll with a full mourning suit. F.—4. The night a person was put. 
in the grave an angel would come down from heaven and cut the 
soul out and fly back again. F.—5. Funerals unpleasant because 
every one wore black; coffins pretty with their dark wood and 


pretty handles. F.—6. Would look in the shop windows and 
pick out the prettiest coffin for grandpa when he died. F.—7. 


‘Vital Stat. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 93 


Hated to pass corpses,or even see them; coffins extremely repellent; 
shrouds dreadful. F.—8. Sad when I’ saw a hearse; feared the 
pele -bearers might drop the casket; hated coffins for fear of being 

uried alive. F.—9. Thought corpses were wax dolls; must be so 
nice to ride in a hearse, because one could look out at all sides and 
see things. F.—10. Never afraid of corpses, and always thought 
they looked so nice and lay so still; could not bear to see coffin lid 
shut; thought coffins were pretty, but hated them for having a 
cover, so the person could not see out when init; disliked mourn- 
ing; people stilland sad. F.—11. Used to play funeral; one would 
lie on a lounge, and we would pretend she was sick and go to see 
her; after awhile she would die, and we would all go and 
ery over her, and then we would take her by the feet and 
shoulders’ and carry her into a corner. Although I always 
thought it was an awful thing, I often used to play I was dead (when 
quite alone), just to see how it would feel; I would stretch myself 
out on the floor, cross my hands, and hold my breath as long as I 
could; then I would imagine people coming inthe room and look- 
ing at me in my coffin and talking about me. F.—12. Thought 
clergyman was the dead man. F.—13. Crying a pretence. F.—14. 
Relatives’ duty to ery till funeral. F.—15. Funeral an impressive 
social function. F.—16. Played that the corpse came to life and 
scolded those who said mean things about it. F.—17. Had no idea 
whatever connected with coffins, shrouds, hearses or the soul; I 
never gave them one thought. M.—1. Hearse nicest wagon at 
the funeral; wanted to ride in it. M.—2. When about 10 I was 
allowed to ride on a hearse; I have always remembered this as one 
of the greatest pleasures of my childhood. M.—3. Lived near a 
cemetery, and we children used to play with skulls and bones 
which were dug out when new graves were made; had an antipathy 
to the cold of a dead body; at 12 I made an effort to overcome this 
ridiculous feeling by going up to and touching the corpse of a man 
who had committed suicide by hanging; I was unwilling to recog- 
nize the feeling of antipathy as natural to me. M.—4. Thought 
the women who cried at funerals were ‘‘taking on,’”? to make a 
show and impress people. M.—5. Disliked funerals; liked hearse; 
disliked mourning; liked coffin; disliked grave. M.—6. Mortal 
dread of coffins; horrified by seeing an undertaker lie down in one. 
M.—7. Liked to see box lid lowered and earth shoveled in. 


A: good many mentioned that they tried to cry, and a great 
many spoke of curiosity as their dominant feeling. 

One of the most striking things that comes out in this part. 
of the material is the apparently unfounded way in which 
in the same individual some things connected with death,. 
funerals, etc., are favorably regarded, and others put as. 
positively disliked. Of the 98 undated returns, no less than 
40 are favorable to some of the items given below, and un- 
favorable to others; 23 are wholly favorable to everything 
mentioned, 30 are wholly unfavorable, and 5 are neutral or 
indifferent. The following figures represent cases : 


Favorable. Unfavorable. Played. Never Thought Of.. 
Coffin, 9 22 2 4 
Funeral, 16 17 12 1 
Hearse, 25 16 — 3 


94 SCOTT : 


Favorable. Unfavorable. Played. Never Thought Of. 
Wanted to ride in, 13 — 


Mourning, 11 14 12 a 
Corpse, 7 14 7 2 
Grave, 2 14 included in funeral 1 
Shrouds, 6 7 — - 


From the 106 dated reports of first impressions a set 
of curves has been drawn, in which the horizontal lines rep- 
resent cases, mentions, etc., not per cents., and the vertical 
age in years. What is meant by a detailed and strong im- 
pression may be illustrated by the following: 


F. When I was 5 years old I received my first impression of 
death. An old Catholic lady coaxed me to come in and see her 
dead son in his coffin; I distinctly remember the room and the 
position of the coffin; she had candles burning on the table; around 
the coffin there sat about half a dozen women, who were showing 
their sympathy by weeping and moaning; the old lady took me by 
the hand and led me up to the coffin; [remember that he wore a 
shroud; I looked at the face and drew back, as his eyes were not 
completely closed; I cannot say I was afraid; I think it was more 
surprise than anything else. 


Favorable and unfavorable ‘‘ mentions’’ refer to the seven 
items in the table above, a much larger proportion referring 
to the dead body than before. It is evident that the number 
of ‘‘ mentions’’ are in excess of the cases. Comparing the 
area enclosed by the ‘‘ favorable mention ’’ curve with that of 
the ‘‘ unfavorable mention ”’ one, it will be seen how much 
more numerous the first class is than the second. It will also 
be seen that the first class has a very decided apex at 5,while 
the apex of the ‘‘ unfavorable mentions,’’ although it occurs 
at 5, yet rises beyond the others at 10. The fact of the apex 
of this curve occurring at 5 is evidently due to the large pro- 
portion of all first impressions occurring at this age. These 
curves show most emphatically that the age for obtaining the 
first impression of death is generally at 5, and that if delayed 
till much after this age, it is much more likely to be an un- 
favorable one, sometimes giving rise to a horror which is 
never overcome.! The curves representing ‘‘ strong and de- 
tailed impressions,’’ and ‘‘ not much impressed,’’ support the 
above conclusion. The impression referred to is always of a 
very material or external character, and quite frequently 
visual. The grief of the mourners is not understood. Later 
on the external impression is not stamped with the same 
force upon the memory, but other things come in. The only 


'Tolstoi’s description of a young child’s horror at seeing a corpse 
(‘* My Boyhood’’) is certainly not accurate in point of ageif in- 
tended to represent a typical case. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 95. 


mention of any grief being felt, is in this later period. It 
seems that the event meets with a wider psychic irradiation, 
a fringe which drafts off the concentration on the mere ex- 
ternal facts and gives an internal emotion of grief and sym- 


106 DATED REPORTS. 
CASES. 


$ 
(ae) 

















w 
on 














i i 


HLL 
rt 
HELL 


w 
oO 









Hn || 
a 2 
wn 


— 
~~ | 


ho 
oO 


EOS aia ee 





Unfavorable mention, 
Favorable mention, = = # --—--—--—- 
Firstimpression, = 8 = ------------ 
Detailed and strong picture, ---—---—--- 
Not much impressed, |) -—-- = -— -—- 








pathy, or sometimes horror and disgust. Both the more ob- 
jective and the more subjective elements must play together 
in any future experience of death, and since the extrava- 
gances, the unnaturalness and morbidity frequently con- 
nected with the experience of death are highly subjec- 
tive, itis surely of the greatest importance, pedagogically, 


96 SCOTT : 


that the objective element obtain its due reinforcement at 
the proper age. The complaint of the little girl! on being re- 
fused permission by her mother to look at a corpse, that she 
‘was six years old and never sawa dead person,’’ has evi- 
dently its justification in the psychological constitution of the 
individual. 

The following cases, both dated and undated, taken almost 
at random, will illustrate these conclusions : 


F.—1. At5 my brother died; I cried because the others did; re- 
member great joy on driving to the cemetery at the signs of spring 
all about; I remember the patches of green grass or winter wheat, 
and bits of blue sky, but not the burial. F.—2. First acquaint- 
ance with death at 5, when a baby brother died; I recall how he 
looked now as he lay in his little white casket; I was not at all 
afraid, but rather liked the idea of looking at him; he looked to me 
as if he had fallen asleep among flowers. F.—3 (undated). One 
noon several of the girls from school went with me to see a boy 
who was going to be buried in the afternoon; I always liked to kiss 
every corpse, and I did so this day; when I did it all the girls did 
the same; when they came out of the house they were very angry 
with me for kissing him; they said if I did not commence it they 
would not have done it; they told me I had no right to do it, be- 
cause he had the jaundice and we might get it. F.—4. Thought 
dead people were only asleep, and if one touched them or made a 
noise, or even talked, they would awaken; but I did not think they 
would hurt anyone, but only scream, and look and act like a crazy 
person. F.—5. At 6 first saw a little dead girl; was not afraid of 
the corpse, but was frightened at the darkness and stillness of the 
room. F.—6. First acquaintance with death at 5, when my grand- 
father died; remember well the darkened room, the coffin, the cry- 
ing people; it was so strange that I rather liked it; I thought 
grandpa must like to be in such a handsome coffin, but would get 
out again when he wished to; I was impressed most by the odor of 
tube roses, of which the pillows were made; I have never since seen 
or smelt a tube rose without thinking of grandpa’s funeral. F.—7. At 
4, a pupilin my Sunday school class; a collection was taken for 
flowers; I was the smallest and laid the flowers on the coffin; after 
this I always liked to see funerals and corpses. F.—8. Death at 3, 
sister; mother said, ‘‘ Bessie is dead;’’ could not realize what she 
meant, and although forbidden to do so because of contagious dis- 
ease, I stole into the room and started to talk to her; I commenced 
to realize when she did not answer, but thought that she (psychic - 
self) had gone away and would soon be back, so I saved parts of all 
my sweetmeats for her. F.—9. Didnot know what a corpse was 
till my loved grandmother died when I was 10; I would not go into 
the room, although my feeling was not fear; when I heard she was 
dead, I did not want anyone to see me cry; I kept back the tears ~ 
until I was alone; then I flung myself on the floor and sobbed to 
think that I should never see her again; I did not think about the 
funeral, hearse, coffin, etc., but spent my time watching how each 
person who came in the room acted; all the time I was putting my- 
self in mamma’s place, wondering how she felt, and what I should 
do if my mother died. 


1 Mentioned in returns, and reinforced by another similar case. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 97 


M.—1. At6, father and two brothers died; it did not seem so 
horrid as I had heard. M.—2. At 4 attended funeral; thought 
corpse was only asleep; the blinds were down, the people walked 
softly and whispered because they did not wish to wake the dead; 
the preacher’s text was, ‘‘Heis not dead, but sleepeth.’”? M.—3. 
Have the most vivid recollections of my first acquaintance with 
death (6 years); went at the invitation of a playmate to see their 
baby that had died; my feeling was one of curiosity; I thought the 
baby looked nice with’a large gold cross on its breast; I remember 
feeling wonder that some women were crying. M. —4, First im- 
pression of death at 7; was taken tothe funeral of an old lady; often 
heard of dead folk, and shuddered to think of one, and after seeing 
her I always disliked them. 


Rubric 10. Ascribed Life to the Dead. (As Children.) 84 
cases. Of these 30 cases ascribe smother feelings to the 
dead ; 25, thought that the dead were asleep (sometimes 
breathing gently); 25, that the dead felt cold (in shroud, on 
‘ice, etc.); 16, that they felt rain, damp, etc.; 12, that they 
felt cramped, tired, wanted to turn, strange that they did not 
sit up ; 7, that they felt lonesome; 11, were afraid that the 
dead would be buried alive; 6, that they were only pretend- 
ing; 10, were afraid the dead would awake, jump up and do 
horrid things, run after them, play some joke; 3, spoke to 
the dead ; 8, were afraid the dead would feel the worms bit- 
ing and crawling; 7 more, object to the grave on account of 
worms; 8, feared the dead could not see out of coffin, grave, 
etc.; 7 more, that the grave was dark; 4, thought that the 
dead made their way out of the grave, dug, sneaked out in 
dark, etc.; 2, that the dead communicated underground; 4, 
that it was funny to put the dead in a coffin when they were 
going to heaven; 1, would rather have the body go to heaven 
and the soul stay in the grave; 1, thought the body kept on 
growing and would become the shape of the coffin. 

The following selection from the experience of H. B. (al- 
ready quoted) will indicate the transitions in the feeling of 
death from one age to the other, and give a concrete case 
referring to several previous categories : 


About 10 to 14I was frightened at any one who died; it was some- 
thing I could not explain, although I used to try to reason myself 
out of it; I would look at a companion who had died and say: 
‘Well, that was Alice; she saved my life once from drowning; I 
know there is nothing” to be afraid of;’’ but yet I would have a 
feeling of terror, and I would shudder ‘when looking at her, and for 
days after I would be afraid to enter a room alone; I used to go to 
sleep with my head buried in bed-clothes, frightened that if I 
would look up I would see the spirit of Alice in the room; to this 
day I have a similar fear after anyone has died; but it would be dif- 
ferent with my own loved ones; I often thought when I was a 
young wife that it was strange I had this horror; but I liked to 
dwell on and imagine how, if my husband was dead, I would throw 
myself on him and clasp him—that I would be jealous of anyone 


98 SCOTT : 


else—that I would go in and lock the door, and no one should touch: 
or handle, or share the vigils till he left the house forever; I used 
to lie awake nights sometimes and think this way; I have had no: 
experience of death in my family, but I know this is the way I 
would feel and act; but all other bodies would fill me with a name- 
less terror, all but my own loved ones—even I think I would be 
afraid of my own dear father; not what he is at present, but all 
that he has been in the past—the life of the man would rise up and 
terrify me. 

Even at the present day when I see a hearse or crape, a shudder 
arises, and yet I am filled with a pity for the dead body that is. 
going out; a feeling of suffocation and smothering, that the dead 
body must feel rebellious, overcomes me. 


This return naturally introduces 

Rubric 11. Dwelling on Death and Suicide. This is also 
a very well-filled category, 67% of the whole reporting. Of 
these only 7% of the whole state that they never dwelt on 
death or suicide, the remaining 60% giving answers like the 
following : 


F.—1. About15 I dwelt on death to the greatest extent; often thought. 
of stepping in front of a passing train,drowning,taking poison, jump- 
ing from a window; often tried to decide if I committed suicide 
what way I would do it; often imagined how others would feel if I 
were found dead; once I imagined they were just lowering the 
coffin when I raised the lid; these feelings were associated at. 
various times with all three—anger, love and religion; I thought 
most of these things about 15 or 16 and during revival services; at. 
an earlier age, when I was punished. F.—2. Between 13 and 14 I 
had special spells of dwelling on death; after revival meeting, where 
were generally preached hell and judgment day, I thought of noth- 
ing but death; I came home and divided my possessions; I could 
not sleep at night; I was worked up so it almost made me sick. F. 
—3. Was very angry because my mother would not let me go on a, 
picnic (at 14); I lay awake a long time at night and imagined I was. 
dead, and that my friends all came to see me as I lay in my coffin; 
I thought my mother cried and cried and wished she had let me go 
to the picnic; soI felt revenged. F.—4. At 14 to 15, when very 
angry I used to think I would go and hang myself, at other times. 
that I would jump out of the third story window; then I would 
imagine the horrified looks and the sorrow of those with whom I 
was angry, of what they would say, and how they would excuse me 
and blame themselves. F.—5. When stopped from quarreling 
with my sister, I used to imagine that my mother cared more for 
her than she did for me; this made me think I would commit sui- 
cide and so get out of the way; then I thought mamma would feel 
so bad, and my sister would never look the same girl again, and 
people would say,‘‘ What a shame that one so young could take her © 
own life.’ F.—6. Angered and mortified by my parents upbraid - 
ing me (most about 13), I thought if I should commit suicide or 
some accident should happen to me, what would they feel and 
think? but when [imagined them weeping, I couldn’t stand it and got 
as far from the subject as possible. F.—7. Once very angry with 
my mother; I thought,Well, Pll just go and drown myself, and then 
maybe she will be sorry; but then I thought it will be too late, forI 
will be dead. F.—8. Often after going to bed (when a child) I 
would lie still and straight, fold my hands upon my breast and im- 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 99 


agine I was dead; I would think how the people would feel and 
what they would say when they saw me. 

M.—1. At 15, often had spells of dwelling on death; how if I 
should be found dead, what would my friends say? M.—2. When 
angry or in an exceedingly generous or sympathetic mood, imag-~- 
ined myself dead. M.—3. At aco-educational school, the question 
was asked by a young lady, how many had ever thought of commit- 
ting suicide ? There were 11 of us, ranging in age from 16 to 20, and 
they all confessed they had contemplated it; this lady had asked 50 
in the school, and with the same result. M.—4.  Ati14and15I was 
much attracted by the girls, but was too bashful to say much to 
them, but I used to plan heroic sacrifices of my life in order to save 
them or ensure their happiness, thinking they would appreciate me 
then. 

The difference of emotional depth in face of the thought of 
death between these returns and those of early childhood 
(rubric 8) is exceedingly well marked. In some cases love 
and even sexual love is mentioned, but even when feelings of 
revenge and ill treatment are the principal correlates, the 
altruistic tendency is quite as evident. There is involved 
here all along the putting of oneself in the other’s place, and 
an assumption of love on their part which is appreciated by 
and reveled in by the miserable imaginer. By this logic of 
the emotions the heart gets back the love from which it seems 
excluded, and thus helps to cure its psychic wounds. The 
more intellectual radiation or reflection of F.—7, although 
it would seem to lie directly on the surface, indeed perhaps 
because it does lie simply on the surface, has only been men- 
tioned once. ‘The idea, too, that these imaginations are only 
a mere play, and that they would not really like to die, etc., 
is very rare indeed. 

How common such experiences are, and how they’culminate 
in early adolescence, with the awakening of the sexual and 
altruistic nature, may be shown by the following table : 


~ = ie 
PERCENTAGE WHO 2 g be) 
° E = & 

Z 2 | 
Dwelt on death (imagined, etc.) 0 | 62 | 11 | 27 
Dwelt on suicide GO DP ine det ares 
Connect with anger 60 | 26; 3} 11 
Connect with love O45 tO Let 
Connect with ill treatment 55 | 28; 8| 9 
Thought others would be sorry for ill treatment | 76) 12; 8); 4 
Thought how others would feel 38 | 38 | 4] 20 
Imagined with pleasure 9207. Gu OF. 2 
Refer to as past (adults) 24 FE ac OO 


Say not yet past, 5% 


wu 


100 SCOTT : 


Rubric 12. Present Mention of Suicide. ( Adults.) 65 cases. 
Suicide never justifiable, 34% ; suicide permissible in certain 
circumstances, 60%; sickness or insanity were mentioned as 
an excuse by 12%; loss of money or like misfortune by 10%; 
wife running in debt, 3% (females); to get insurance for 
starving family a man may suicide, 1% (females) ; going to be 
hanged, 3%; sacrifice, pity (Jesus for example), 6%; loss of 
friends, 4%; frequently think of it, 4%; always prepared for 
suicide, 4%; only lack of courage prevents, 3%. 

Examples of material : 


F.—1. Age, 33. Since 16 have known I might become blind, and am 
prepared if this should occur to end my life. It has no more meaning 
to me than any ordinary preparation for any work. I think suicide 
is justifiable when circumstances make the continuance of life in- 
jurious to the health or life of others. If a person is justified in 
giving his life to save a drowning person, he is justified in prevent- 
ing a long sacrifice of a useful life for a failure. The responsibility 
of ending one’s life is less than that of producing life under ordi- 
nary conditions. F.—2. Age,19. Suicide justifiable if it were the 
only way some real good might be done to others. Enoch Arden, 
e.g., if his wife had discovered him. F.—3. Age, 36. English 
women in India at the time of the Sepoy rebellion. 

M.—1. Age,17. Justifiable if friends are against you in every- 
thing you undertake. M.—2. Age, 25. About 23 was subject to a 
periodical desire for death. I noticed that these spells usually pre- 
ceded the expected arrival of a letter from a certain young lady. 
Usually when thinking of death now, it has a fascination I have to 
resist by force for fear of yielding to it. M.—3. Age, 30. To 
counterbalance effect of predisposition to depression, when taking 
life insurance I avoided those which gave payments in case of 
suicide. M.—4. Age, 35. Believing, as I do, that the end of life 
consists in the development of character in self and others, suicide 
does not appear justifiable to me. This does not prevent me from 
feeling at times that death would be a welcome relief from the dif- 
ficulties of life. 


Rubric 13. Feelings when Thinking of the Shortness of 
Life. (Adults.) 57 cases. Make good resolutions, 20%; think 
of wasted time, 12%; will be longer in the next world, 12% ; 
life hardly worth living, 10%; sad and disgusted, 6%; troubles 
grow insignificant, 6%; life becomes insignificant, 4%; think 
of God as judge, 2%; feel glad, 4%; feel like laying up treas- 
ures in heaven, 4% ; feeling of grim humor, 2% ; a brake on 
all endeavor, 2% ; wish I had never been born, 4% ; never © 
thought about it, 10%. . 

Rubric 14. Diseases, etc., Feared as Children. 129 cases. 
Small-pox by 30% ; lockjaw by 28% (9% imagine getting it, 
3% were ready with wood, etc., to put between their jaws) ; 
consumption, 27% ; hydrophobia, 21%; railroad accidents, 
18%; diphtheria, 16%; drowning, 15% ; fire, 12%; leprosy, 
8% (imagine getting, 3%); earthquakes, 7% ; cyclones, tor- 
nadoes, 4% ; lightning, 6% ; pneumonia, 6%; cancer, 5%; 


OLD AGE AND DEATH, 101 


yellow fever, 5%; end of the world, 4%; feared to be last one 
alive, 2%; miscellaneous accidents, 6%. 

The intensity of fears follows the following order: small- 
pox, feared most by 18% ; leprosy by 7% ; hydrophobia by 
7%; consumption by 7%; lockjaw by 5%; diphtheria by 4%; 
cancer, 3%; yellow fever, 3%; railroad accidents, drowning, 
fire, each, 2%; earthquakes, cyclones, and end of the world, 
each, 1%. 

The reasons given for the fears were: stories heard (news- 
papers, Bible, etc.), by 14% ; isolation by 10% ; become like 
lower animals, 7%; disfiguring marks, 6%; smothering, 6%; 
starvation, 5%; sure death, 3%; future life, 1%. 


F.—1. Iused to think I would die of consumption because I was 
very thin. F.—2. Feared being struck by lightning. I could im- 
agine the zig-zag flashes cutting a way through the body like a 
spear and finally darting out, leaving its victim as dazzling light 
and completely isolated from everything. F.—3. Often (more 
about 7) if my jaws would not move as I thought they ought to, I 
feared I was going to have lockjaw, and starve to death. F. la 
Feared most enlargement of the heart, that it would keep on grow- 
ing until it burst my body open and I would die. F.—5. Leprosy 
most. Afraid fingers would fall off. F.—6. Would worry myself 
almost sick when traveling, for fear the cars would run off the 
track. F.—7. Afraid of yellow fever. Heard father tell of many 
people dying from this disease. Would think how dreadful it would 
be if the people in our neighborhood would get it and would all die, 
and there would be no one left to bury us. Was afraid of hydropho- 
bia, small-pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, lockjaw, mumps, typhoid 
fever, being killed by runaway horses, hurricanes, war, earth- 
quakes, thunder and lightning, of the water in the river rising 
and drowning us all, of fire.' At night I used to imagine I heard the 
fire cracking and snapping, and expected to see it coming up 
through the floor, but I never said anything about it. 

M.—1. Feared greatly scarlet fever, also mortally afraid of con- 
sumption and catarrh. When traveling would think of train jump- 
ing the track. One of my greatest fears was lightning. I thought 
the souls of those struck went to heaven on the bolt of lightning. 


Rubric 15. Experience when near Death from Accident or 
Disease. 25 cases. This rubric is of special interest on account 
of the recent article by V. Egger? on the consciousness of the 
dying, which has brought out some correspondence from 
other authors. M. Egger holds the view that the idea of 
death strongly stimulates the idea of self. The sense of 
merit which he admits is frequent in face of death is, he 
Says, Simply an epitome of the self. If we are to give any 
special meaning to the term self, this view is not borne out 
by the mass of these returns, some slight irrelevant idea, or 
the thought of others being most frequent. The sense of 


Most of these given in detail. 
* Rev. Phil., Jan., ’96. 


102 SCOTT : 


merit, if from one standpoint an epitome of the self, from an- 
other standpoint demands the recognition of others. ‘This 
last element is most apt to be in the focus of consciousness. 
On the whole the most of the cases indicate the formation of 
a fetich or objective symbol somewhat de-centralized from a 
strong emotion, with which it is nevertheless sub-consciously 
associated.1 This fetich is most apt to be some objective fact 
or sensation. 


Drowning. M.—1. Thought of nothing but getting out, andif 
drowned would anybody be sorry, and would I have a big funeral? 
M.—2. All the bad deeds of my life flashed before me (14 years). 
M.—3. Nearly drowned. Thought of a great many things and suf- 
fered no pain, but hard or impossible to describe. M.—4. Nearly 
drowned while swimming at 14, but had no feelings about it. M.—5. 
Once nearly drowned (about 8 years). My experience was delight- 
ful, soothing, panoramic, and the tug of the rescuer was a harsh 
note, provoking a feeling of anger at the intrusion. F.—1. Once 
near to death by drowning; was physically afraid and trembled 
violently, but did not scream. The year before I had not taken 
algebra, as most of my class had done, and I thought, ‘‘Now it does 
not make any difference anyhow.”’ F.—2. Nearly drowned last 
summer (age, 19); my head and brain seemed to be in absolute 
confusion; came to the surface once and thought, ‘‘Well, if my 
body is lost, my soul won’t be.”’ 

Other accidents. M.—6. Nearly run over by train (under 20); 
did not think about anything till after, then pictured the possibility 
of death—body met at the station, etc.; then a rigid course of in- 
trospection to see what good I had done, what opportunities for so 
doing had been neglected, what evil I had done, and whether I 
would have gone to heaven or to hell; last, a renewed determination 
to reconsecrate my all to His service. M.—7. Near falling from 
apex of barn; felt no fear at the time, but was more thoughtful for 
a few weeks after. Nearly killed by a balking horse; only thought 
was, ‘‘ Guess they’ll have to get a new teacher.”?” M.—8. Atage 
of 24, half way up perpendicular cliff of 400 feet, commenced to reel 
with sun, heat and exhaustion, and felt like falling; have always 
been given to quoting poetry in predicaments; here flashed into my 
brain and saved me the words of Gunzalo, ‘‘Now would I give a 
thousand leagues of sea for one acre of barren ground.’”’ I some- 
what queerly smiled. F.—-3. Nearly run over; imaginatively im- 
pressed by the horse’s hoofs for a week or more. M.—8. Shotin 
battle. Felt perfectly happy. 

Illness. M.—9. Sick with la grippe (20); thought of meeting 
God, and did not feel equal to the task, yet, being so ill, it did not 
matter much to me whether I got better or not; when I got welll . 
felt grateful to God. M.—5. (Same as above.) Near death from ill- 
ness at 22; the danger disturbed me very little; I said, ‘‘I want to 
live long enough to do something in the world, but if Providence 
vetoes that wish—‘ Let ’er go, Gallagher!’’’ The half flippancy of 
my attitude surprised and shocked me afterwards. M.—10. At 22, 
after an attack of peritonitis, had occlusion of the intestines; my 
medical knowledge (physician) told me what it meant; it was prob- 
able I would die. This did not worry me, but I felt it would be the 


'Of. section on Fetichism in author’s article, ‘‘Sex and Art,” AM. 
JouR. Psy., Jan., 1896. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 103 


saddest thing for my parents, who had given so much of their time 
and fortune tome; the weaker I grew the less I worried about my- 
self, and only the sadness mentioned remained to some extent. 
. F.—4. Near to death lately (36 years); I was more blissfully happy 
than I had ever felt. F.—5. At 24 had typhoid fever; felt very 
weak; wanted to be let alone; felt it was easier to die than to gain 
strength. F.—6. Been at the point of death several times as re- 
sult of angina pectoris and administration of ether; went (at 28) to 
a conceited young physician in a strange town to have ether ad- 
ministered, saying nothing about susceptibility; nearly died; first 
thought on returning to consciousness was, ‘‘That young fellow has 
probably learned a valuable lesson.’”? Once had angina pectoris at 
altitude of 7,000 feet; during intervals of consciousness worried 
over a small bill that was left unpaid; thought Gabriel would have 
a good time hunting me up if they buried me in the mountains. 
During these gaps I have always noticed that all my senses, except 
the muscular, were very acute. 


Rubric 16. The Child’s Notion of the Soul. 102 cases. 
Substance, etc. Thought it gaseous, 26 cases; had wings, 
17; light, 9; bright, 8; white, 9; invisible, 7; a bird (some- 
times dove), 6; a bright light, 3; an angel, or like an angel, 
6; no qualities, negative of all, 2; same as conscience, 2; 
bluish, 2; jelly-like,1; a something, 1; brown, soft, about 
the size of a hickory nut, 1; a piece of flesh as big as hand, 
laid on shelves in heaven, 1; a thin white cloth, with black 
spots on for evil deeds, and flew around like paper, 1; a pure 
white ball of cotton, 1; oblong, dark, slate colored, lying 
across body, 1; small, hard, like wood, 1; an oblong, yellow, 
thin box, 1; part of Christ, 1; a cloud, 1; could stick fingers 
through, 1. 

Location. In breast, 13; in heart, 7; around heart, 4; in 
head, 6; all over body, 10; not separate from body, 8. | 

Shape. Same shape as body, 20; heart-shaped, 10; same 
shape as body, but smaller, 7; body could be pulled off it, 1. 

Capacities, etc. Floated, flew, etc., from body to heaven, 
26; went from grave to heaven, 10; God or angels took it 
out of the body or grave, 7; joined new body in heaven, 1; 
joined old body in heaven, 1; watched for emanation, 3. 

Never thought of the soul, had no idea of it, 14; have yet 
(as adults) no idea of it or think about it, 3 (females). 

Illustrative cases. F.—1. Had no idea of the soul as being sep- 
arate from the body; thought when the person died he remained in 
the grave for a while, and then got out some way and went up to 
heaven; it used to puzzle me how they got out without being seen 
and got their wings in order to fly to heaven. F.—2. Soul gaseous 
and bluish; of no definite shape; went through the body and air to 
heaven in the sky; all happened in an instant; when it reached 
heaven it took its place in my body again, asI imagined myself in 
heaven in bodily form; never thought my earthly body was in the 
grave. M.—1. Soul came out of the mouth, and if the head were 


put in something that would fit it very tight, the soul would not be 
able to leave the body and the person would not die. 


104 SCOTT : 


Rubric 17. Belief in Immortality, 123 returns. 


= w w 

| eee 

cb) o q 

PERCENTAGE WHO 3 1 1 

3/8 

s = Abe 

Believe in future life 95 | 75 | 63 | 60 

Mention childhood only —}|}18/; 6] 10 

Do not believe in future life 5. |. oT OL vee 

Meet friends in heaven 29 | 29 | 27 | 20 

Friends watch over us here, etc. 10 | 15 | 18 | 20 
Accept or refer to hell 6 | 121° 6 ie 

Refuse to accept hell 2); 4)/—)— 

No reference to hell 92 | 84 | 94 | 90 

Heaven, city-like 15; 4) —|]— 

Heaven, country-like 10; 4) —}]— 

Heaven, a room 4});—/;—]}]— 

Heaven represented by throne 10 |; — | —) 
Thoughts run on after death forever 1; 5| 4} 10? 

Thoughts limited, difficult,close with judgment day| 4 | 29| 9 | — 

Heaven in sky, etc. 10}; — | —}] — 


As the right hand column contains only 10 cases (more old 
people speaking of this life than the next. Cf. Rubric 7), the 
results are not very certain, except when they continue ten- 
dencies already shown in the first three columns. In the first 
column all the returns are represented. 


Illustrative cases. F.—1. Asa child I thought heaven was a 
place where they did nothing but sing, and as I could not sing I 
did not want to go there. 


F.—2. Age, 22. Have a feeling that at times our friends hover . 
around us; often felt that my mother was near me. 


F.—3. Heaven (as child) a beautiful bright place, with carpet on 
the floor and no dirt. 


F.—4. Somewhere between earth and heaven there were two 
paths, one leading up to a gate, another leading away from it; 
thought the soul in the form of a mist came up the path to the gate; 
there stood the judge; if good on earth they could goin; if not, they 
must go by the other path until they came to a large hole, and the 
soul fell through this into hell. 


F.—5. Age,i74. Thoughts are notvery clear about the after life. 

Hardly think we are to go there and just fly around like birds, 

but rather everyone will do the things they love best in the way of 

art or music, or anything of that kind; each will love all equally, 

and so there will be perfect happiness. . . . Can’t realize that hap- 

piness goes on forever, and ever never changing; seems as though 
there must be an end to it sometime. 


F.—6. Age,21. Used to think, and do still, when I do not look at 
it scientifically, that heaven is up above the blue of the sky. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 105 


F.—7. Used to wonder what a person who was twice married 
would do in heaven. 


F.—8. Age, 21. Idea of living on forever with my own person- 
lity unbearable; I worried most about this at 10, but at 20 I heard 
an address on immortality; the feeling of its unbearableness came 
back; it was as if I simply could not endure it—better total annihi- 
lation, anything, than this continual going on and on; at present I 
do not believe in a future life. 


F.—9. Age, 20. I used to think of the one who died as still in 
the grave, while taught the contrary; believe the soul departs to 
be with Christ. 


_ F.—10. Age,17. Always thought meet friends hereafter, bright 
and sparkling (fixed), crowded with people dressed in white, with 
gold stars on head; every one in heaven very gay. 


F.—11. Age,18. Believe fixedly in an eternal future in the pres- 
ence of God; I think when a person is dead his thoughts are at an 
end, 7. e., he does not think the way he used to, but have no doubt the 
mind goes on in another life. 


F.—12. Age, 36. Little feeling about friends who have died; feel 
that death ends all; if they have progressed we shall be outgrown; 
if they remain stationary they are outgrown. 


F.—13. Age,17. Imagined angels flitting about in long robes 
and watching the people on earth and carrying dead people to 
heaven; I always want to think that those who have died are watch- 
ing over, protecting and guiding those on earth. 


F.—14. Age,18. Thought only a very few wentto heaven, those 
who had been very good; thought heaven was like a large church, 
and that the people were clothed in white and sang to God, and He 
communicated with them; I think now that when we go to heaven 
all things which by faith we accept will be openly revealed to us 
by God, only in another way, and not as we now see them; the 
future we are told by God will be one of joy, but that joy will be 
different from what we now consider joy. 


F.—15. Age,19. Used to think every one who died went to 
heaven; don’t now; angels spent their time singing, sitting around 
a throne and listening to Jesus; thought they looked after us, and 
were pleased when we did right (14 to 19); think of friends as 
happy and not far away. 


F.—16. Age,17. Asa child I never truly wished to go to heaven, 
although I tried to think so; though I like singing I thought it must 
be tiresome to sing forever; now I think it is a place where we will 
be supremely happy, do everything we want to, but our wants will 
be so changed that we will wish for only that which is right; some- 
times I have doubts concerning heaven, etc., but Ishould never care 
to speak of them to anyone whom I knew could not answer me, for 
if they could not it might strengthen these doubts, and would 
surely do another no good; I cannot in the least grasp the idea of 
eternity, and seem to think of it as only a short period. 


F.—17. Age,19. Asa child believed in future life, ete., but at 15, 
when I began to think of such things, I had my doubts for a time; 
now my deepest thoughts and feelings tell me there is a future 
life; thoughts run only shortly after judgment day; heaven a 
great glittering palace paved with gold and jewels; souls looked 
just as they did on earth, etc.; I now feel uncertain what form my 
friends will have, or how we shall know them. 


F.—18. Age,17. Always believed in heaven; think of the body 


106 SCOTT + 


in the grave for only a short time, then of the judgment day; I 
imagine when I die everyone else will die too, and judgment day 
will be soon after; heaven not very large, about like my room, only 
there was no floor, only clouds and God’s throne, which was made 
of gold; people as ‘on earth only floating around; there are times 
when I think heaven must be dull, and am puzzled when I think of 
the length of eternity. 


F.—19. Age,18. Gate of heaven large, beautiful, pure white, so 
bright it hurt your eyes to look at it; guarded by two angels, one 
outside with a large sword, and the otherinside with the key which 
unlocked the gate; when a person died his soul flew to the gate, 
etc.; if the person ‘had been bad, refused admittance,and the clouds 
opened up and he fell into hell. 


F'.—20. Age, 18. I imagined heaven was a big place, and that it 
was made of gold and marble; in the middle of it was a large 
throne in the shape of a circle; it was made of steps; on this throne 
sat God and Christ; before God there was a big book, and in this 
He had the name of every one in the world; when they did any- 
thing wrong He would put a mark opposite their name, and when 
they had so many marks, either good or bad, they died; Christ 
pleaded with God to let them come to heaven; on the steps of the 
throne sat a lot of angels playing on horns and harps; all around 
the throne were coffins, and in each sat an angel; all were singing, 
and they never stopped. 


F.—21. Age,17. Inever will think and never did think of a 
future life, because the answer to all questions which arise is, “I 
do not know; no one knows;”’ after death my thoughts run only 
to the funeral; I never can think of what will happen to the soul, 
because I do not believe there can be a hell, although my religion 
teaches it, and I cannot imagine heaven. 


F'.—22. Age, 174. My present ideas are entirely different; I 
think now the soul goes to paradise, and will go to heaven after the 
judgment day; paradise is very much like heaven, only not quite 
as beautiful; in heaven there is a river, and beautiful trees and 
flowers on its banks; but I seldom try to think just how heaven- 
looks, because I know that ‘“‘eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, 
neither hath it entered into the heart of man the things that God 
hath prepared for them that love Him;’’' I pretend that I am 
sitting on the bank of the river with Jesus "alone and telling Him 
how happy I am, and He is telling me why He sent certain troubles 
to me, and how they made me better; I know I will have a harp 
and can sing praises to Him; my thoughts thus run away into 


eternity; . . . . . I think the angels will minister to us there 
as they donow; . . . there is one question that bothers me, 
and that is, will mamma or my step-mother be papa’s wife 
there? and what the one will do whoisn’t; . . . I send mes- 


sages to my mamma when I say my prayers, for I know that I can 
talk to God, and He can talk to mamma. (Father a clergyman.) 


M.—1. Koa! 33. Belief in future life and in recognition after death 
have been strengthened by the death of my little boy; I know that 
this is no intellectual evidence, butit isevidence that any heart will 
weigh well before rejecting; surely love of parent for child is a real 
thing, as real as the things we touch or taste; . . I see noreason 
why my love for my dead boy, and my desire to be reunited to him, 


‘Yet she often imagines that she will talk to Jesus and He to 
her, etc. 


if OLD AGE AND DEATH. 107 


may not postulate the very existence of the objects towards which 
they are directed. 


M.—2. Age, 65. Feelings have changed very much in regard to 
the future state (a phrenologist told me they would); can not think 
now that the soul can exist separate from the body, which will be 
decomposed in nature’s laboratory. 


M.—3. Age, 77. I have always believed in a future life—a blessed 
life for the true Christian, and a state of wretchedness for the im- 
pure in heart. 


M.—4. Age, 35. Feelasif departed friends were near at hand 
looking down from above or just behind me, and interested in 
everything I do, more so than when alive; I like to think of them, 
ie wonder what they think of what has happened since they 
‘died. 


M.—5. Age, 35. Thought how sad it was to leave this world; 
never could get up interest enough in the future world to make me 
want to know more about it. 


M.—6. Age, 25. In childhood immortality a necessary belief, 
and would have preferred hell to annihilation; at present, belief in 
immortality plays a very small part in my experience or motives; 
I leave it indefinite, though I rather feel it is true. 


M.—7. Age, 25. Asa child had the usual orthodox idea of a 
future life; later I lost belief in a future life, and have no desire to 
believe in it now for myself or for my friends. 


M.—8. Age, 31. Fluctuate between the speculation that our 
elements are dissipated in death and a hazy hope thatif we achieve 
self-knowledge in this state we may survive without losing iden- 
tity; have lost only one friend by death, and I confess that I feel he 
survives in spirit, but I do not believe it (I do not mean that I be- 
lieve in the contrary). 


M.—9. Age, 26. During the funeral of my father I felt for the 
first time a certainty of meeting him again; about 17 the question 
of immortality was a favorite subject of reflection and reading; I 
became more and more satisfied that there was a life beyond, al-. 
though nobody could demonstrate it; this was a spiritual but vis- 
ualized existence; I saw myself with dear friends and with the 
great and good of all ages; wondered if Socrates and Homer would 
care enough for me to allow me to be near them; the death of a 
dear friend about year ago has profoundly affected my life; it seems 
as if a part of myself is gone, and that I shall never recover my 
wholeness until [am with him again; my disposition has changed, 
and I have lost confidence in my own abilities, but I have a deeper 
sympathy, and love friends more. 


M.—10. Age, 30. The chief objection to the beliefinimmortality 
made itself felt in the fact that abortions, premature births, and 
‘deaths intra partum, do not cause the feeling of immortality; 
the origin of life has been the greatest objection to my belief in im- 
mortality; my own life and my experience with so many dying and 
dead people since, have only confirmed my attitude, with which I 
feel perfectly happy, and which seems to me to lead me to a better 
and more rational life than any other doctrine; the only regret that 
IT have is that I was allowed to work it out by myself with much 
loss of time and energy, and could not avail myself earlier of it. 


M.—11. ————. No definite notion of future life; ‘‘forever,”’ 
‘¢ eternity,’? seemed absolutely impossible; the idea painful; 
eternity presented itself visually as a vast expanse of unobstructed 
territory, bounded on the outer edges by a rim of forest trees. 


108 SCOTT: 


M.—12. Age, 37. Never had belief in the heaven of the Sunday 
school pictures; I held the fables of literature in precisely the same 
seriousness as the stories of the Sunday school teachers; they 
seemed to me to be beautiful and good, but I hardly knew whether 
grown-up people meant us to really believe them; I never heard 
religion spoken of irreverently as a child. 


M.—13. Age, 34. Always believed in future life, only momentary 
doubts or fluctuations; have studied, thought and preached on the 
subject, but think there is no proof; I feel that it must be true from 
my faith in God; can’t imagine time in future state; never fancied: 
much about heaven; expect to be greatly surprised by the nature 
of spirit life, but expect reason is immortal and the same; expect: 
to see friends with mind only, and to think with them and enjoy 
their spirits. 

M.—14. Age, 35. Have given up early idea of future life, but L 
think somehow spirit may be eternal, but I don’t know whether the 
finite spirit will preserve its identity in the future state, or whether 
in some way it may be resolved into the infinite spirit; I like to 
think of both these possibilities, and of a third, viz., that the in- 
sete ae one’s life will continue to affect future generations of 
mankind. 


M.—15. Age, 20. Sleep in grave tillresurrection, and yet in some 
way believe to some extent that persons who are dead can know 
what we are doing; have heard, e. g., a mother’s parting words to 
her boy, ‘‘ I will watch over you from heaven, my son;’’ heaven 
bright, no night, everybody joyous, golden streets; sort of ancient 
houses to live in, all through very beautiful; angels flew around all 
over world at command of Christ, not doing anything else, singing 
and playing a kind of harp; often imagined myself in heaven and 
looking down on earth and see the people I knew walking around. 


M.—16. Age,19. Feel death is a change for the better, but of 
that which follows death I find it impossible for me to think; IL 
think we will meet our friends after death; I used to think heaven 
was a beautiful place, where you spent your time enjoying the dif- 
ferent pleasures of life; I feel that our friends are around us en- 
deavoring to aid us through life. 


M.—17. Age, 26. Till14 believed vaguely but confidently in a. 
God and a hereafter; to-day, ‘‘ If there is a God, the man who does 
the best he knows how here may expect some kind of a future life, 
in which he will know God better, and this existence will be in 
many ways better than the present; if there is no being above us, 
yet it will be better for himself and for others if each person does. 
the best he knows how.’’ 


From a general view of the results of the questionnaire, we 
cannot fail to realize what an important element in the con- 
sciousness of mankind is the question of death and the 
problems which naturally arise from it. At first appreciated. 
rather superficially and coldly by the child, the development. 
of adolescence with its emotional crescendo adds an immense 
radiation of feeling to the objective facts, and at this age, 
rather than in later life, or even in old age, is found the most 
frequent dwelling upon these subjects. An ideal curve ofthe 
averaged thoughts and feelings on the subject of death and 
its radiations, during a lifetime, might be drawn, as rising to 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 109 


the age of 5; dropping slightly and rising again to a much 
greater height at 14 (table), continuing with a slight fall for 
five or six years, falling as the practical side of life claims at- 
tention, to rise again slowly with increasing age. (Rubric 8.) 
Immortality and the Funeral. With the fully developed 
concrete conception of death, there is evidently deeply as- 
sociated on the one side a fringe of radiating ideas, and on 
the other the most elemental emotions of our constitution. 
At one moment an organized body, energetic, incalculable, 
awakening all kinds of reactions in our minds, is in the next 
Simply a mass of senseless clay. All our feeling of con- 
tinuity, of persistence of energy, as well as our feelings of 
love and sympathy, are shocked and outraged in proportion 
as we realize the facts. Death, the rude irony of its com- 
ment on individual life, its cruel separations, has been the 
tragic background to all the self-conscious development of 
man. ‘‘ Why was I born to go through it all?’’ ‘I cannot 
bear to think of it,’’ ‘‘I would rather never have been 
born,’’—are typical of a number of our answers on this subject. 
From the smothered sob which it has been said lies at the 
root of all religion' to the mother who still hears her dead 
child calling for her, or wraps a stick in baby clothes and 
carries it next her breast, death has shown itself to thonu- 
sands as the very type of evil, the great imperishable blot on 
life. If we would live, however, it is necessary to be recon- 
ciled in some way to this great fact. Mystics have denied or 
glorified it, poets have covered it with tender words,, calling 
it sleep, and crowning it with flowers; stoics have harshly 
dismissed the idea, or bitterly welcomed the thing itself as at. 
least the end of its own fear. All of these tendencies are 
shown in our returns, but among those answering there is no 
reconcilement more frequently mentioned than the idea of the 
future life. In this respect the last two rubrics are more im- 
portant than any of the others. In the ideas on the soul and 
immortality, we have summed up or represented elements 
which exist under many of the other heads. The association 
of growing old with death and the future life is one that is 
quite frequent. (Rubric1l.)? When a belief in immortality 
is reached, it evidently conditions the conception of suicide. 
The grave is not rarely looked on as the gate to heaven. The 
ceremony of the funeral, the weeping, etc., is looked on as 
‘‘funny’’ by many children, and with astonishment by one 


1Cf. ‘God is an unutterable sigh lying in the depths of the 
heart.’? Sebastian Frank von Word, quoted by Feuerbuch, ‘‘ The 
Essence of Christianity,’’ p. 121. 

“Tet age approve of youth, and death complete the same.’” 
Browning’s ‘‘ Rabbi Ben Ezra.”’ 


110 SCOTT : 


adult of our returns, in view of the belief that the person has 
gone to heaven. The ceremonies of the funeral itself are fre- 
quently conditioned by ideas of the future life. The ancient 
Christians ‘‘ testified their abhorrence of pagan customs of cre- 
mation by depositing the entire body in the ground.’’?! Church 
burial has a similar significance. In Rome on their arrival 
at the church vault, bodies have their fine trappings taken 
off, and are piled one over the other, without a rag 
to cover them, until the vault is filled, when it is 
bricked up and left for fifty years.2 From the mere 
fact of the wealth of material which it subsumes, the concep- 
‘tion of immortality must be regarded from the psychological 
standpoint as at least a far-reaching synthesis of the imagina- 
tion. 

Perhaps because of its many sided origin there are very 
few ideas which have been more subject to various inter- 
pretations, and even to double meanings than that of im- 
mortality. Many seem to use it simply as a metaphor (as it 
may be Dante used heaven and Beatrice) for the undying 
ideals of the race, while others believe that not a nail or eye- 
lash shall be lost when the body is awakened in a future 
world. 

Much philosophy seems to have this idea as an _ all-trans- 
forming arrzére pensée. Neoplatonism and Thomism, with the 
modern forms of scholasticism, are in evidence here. Plato 
has perhaps been unjustly drafted in to support the theory 
of individual immortality, although there are many passages 
suggestive of this idea, as Pfleiderer shows. According to 
Teischmiuller,*? however, Plato’s ideas on this point are the 
game as those of Aristotle, although in a less developed state. 
The problem of Aristotle was of course concerned with univer- 
sal immortality, the individual psyche dying with the body. 
With Plato senescence, death and immortality were so closely 
connected as to be identical in certain phases. Philosophy, 
as has often been noted, was to him a continual meditation on 
death. This meant that philosophy was a senescing or dis- 
carding of the material elements of individuation by reflection 
or meditation (method of generalization), which resulted at 
last in the ‘‘idea,’’ which is immortal. To this, of course, 
there is nothing to be objected. It still takes place every day 
(if time can be applied). But for the individual as such, it 
is quite as justifiable to say that this immortal ‘‘ idea’’ is 
death as life. 

Kant, as is well known, based the necessity of immortality 


'Tegg, ‘‘ The Last Act,’ p. 68. 
* Tegg, op. cit., p. 125. 
3 Geschichte der Begriffe. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 11t 


on the feeling for justice and self-completion, and in order to 
satisfy this demand he postulated the existence of God. 
Runze! points out that this conception of justice has been a 
more permanent historical motive than either the wish to live 
or the intellectual difficulties arising out of the conception of 
death. In days when enmity was wider spread, we find hell 
more popular, and almost a necessity to present satisfaction. 
In some cases, indeed, the joys of heaven were to consist partly 
in listening to the howls of the wicked, 7. e., other people 
who are offensive to the imaginer. The period of the foreign 
oppression in Judea before Christ, and the middle ages with 
their numerous wars and pestilences in presenting death in 
its most cruel and unjust forms, naturally resulted in the 
radiated conceptions of the future life taking a revengeful 
form. Jonathan Edwards in ‘‘ The End of the Wicked Con- 
templated by the Righteous ; or the Torments of the Wicked 
in Hell no Occasion of Grief to the Saints in Heaven,’’ says, 
‘¢ When they have this sight it will excite them to joyful 
praises.’’ ‘The damned and their miseries, their sufferings 
and the wrath of God poured out upon them will be an oc- 
casion of joy to them.’’ Andrew Wellwood (1749) says, 
picturing the future, ‘‘ I am overjoyed in hearing the ever-* 
lasting howlings of the haters of the Almighty. What a 
pleasant melody are they in mine ears! O, eternal hallelujahs 
to Jehovah and the Lamb! O, sweet! sweet! my heart is 
satisfied. Wecommitted our cause to Thee that judgeth 
righteously, and behold Thou hast fully pleaded our cause 
and shall make the smoke of their torment forever and ever 
to ascend in our sight.’’ 

The philosophy of Fichte is very full of assertions and ar- 
guments in favor of individual immortality. The theory of 
Monads (Leibnitz), and modifications of it as held by Lotze, 
Krause, Pfleiderer, etc., lends itself naturally, as does the 
most of dualism, to the idea of a future life. The philosophy 
of Hegel, like that of Aristotle, seems to dissolve the in- 
dividual at death. 

Mosaism is remarkable in the lack of support it gives to 
the future life, as, indeed, is the most of the Old Testament. 
Contact with the Persian ideas during the captivity seems to 
have awakened this longing in the later Judaism.? 

The teaching of Christ was certainly not markedly eschato- 
logical, the most characteristic passages having been drawn 
from Him only in response to caviling objectors. ‘‘ The king- 


1 Op. cit. 

* The oft-quoted passage from Job is translated by Riinze, op. cit., 
as follows: ‘Though after being flayed, worms destroy, yet in my 
bare (or skinless) flesh will I recognize (or acknowledge) God. 


112 SCOTT : 


dom of heaven is now among you.’’ The oneness of man and 
God was perhaps the pressing message of His best period.? 
To this ‘‘here and now’’ doctrine the Christianity of the 
middle ages presents a striking contrast. 

Recent orthodox Christian writers show an increasing ten- 
dency to drop the notion of a direct continuance of the soul 
at death as due to Greek thought rather than to Christ, and 
to rely entirely upon the resurrection, which is to occur at 
the end of the world, and in which both soul and body are to 
be recreated. This, as Rev. Dr. Laidlaw,? e. g., claims, is a 
view in harmony with modern psychology and with the reve- 
lations of the Bible. 

On the other hand, from the standpoint ofindividual feeling, 
a considerable support is offered to the idea of immortality. 
In moments of greatest peace and happiness, an Hwigkeit, a 
feeling of eternal here and now comes over the soul, in which 
we find ourselves entirely absorbed with the present, and in- 
different to or careless of death. Such a consciousness is 
fostered by all the higher services of art, religion, and the 
enthusiasms of love and noble work. It is not in these 
periods a question of the future, but the present is all suf- 
ficient and eternal in itself. 

But when this feeling does not exist, and when we adopt 
the lower jensezt point of view, with this natural dualism is it 
not right and reasonable to carry with us a corrective de- 
rived from the higher state of feeling and project the idea of 
eternity into time? This Platonic lie, this illusion rather than 
delusion’ has at least been the means of safety and psychic 
wholeness to thousands of the human race. Not from the 
technically philosophical standpoint, but from the artistic one 
of gaining the best and most harmonious effect of the 
elements within our control, from the standpoint of feeling 
and health, does this conception find one of its best supports. 

In harmony with this view it is necessary to point out that 
the great fact which all these notions of immortality are in- 
tended to explain, and which they at least succeed in radiat- 
ing, is the human experience of death. As Tylor* says, 
‘‘ Death is the event which in all stages of culture brings 
thought to bear most intensely . . . onthe problems of 
psychology.’’ As shown in our returns, death is on its first 
presentation to the mind almost unintelligible, and neces- 
sarily suggests some conception of continuity. (Rubric 9.) 
This is no doubt due in part to the presence of the dead 


'Cf. Keim’s ‘‘ Life of Christ.”’ 

* “The Bible Doctrine of Man,’’ 1894. 

* Cf. the standpoint of Alden in ‘‘ A Study of Death.’’ 
*** Prim. Culture,’’ Vol. II, p. 448. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 113 


body, so strangely similar to its living counterpart. Ifdeath 
had involved a sudden material annihilation, the suggestion 
of continuity would no doubt have found much less hold 
upon the imagination. The conceptions of the lower races 
and the original ideas of children are triangulated almost en- 
tirely from the sensuous presentation of the dead body. 

But with higher brain development and greater powers of 
representation, although still founded upon the primitive 
basis which normally should remain a part of the most ad- 
vanced individual, therecomes in another more important 
element. The dead body is not the only thing which has to 
disappear. We, who are yet alive, and have come in contact 
with the departed, carry with us impressed upon our minds 
certain ideas, trains of associations, complex reactions, which 
are capable of healthy action only in connection with the 
enemy, friend, hero, or loved one, who isnow no more. It is 
necessary that this associative knot, or the brain region under- 
lying it, should be gradually released and its energy radiated 
into other paths. Here the conception of immortality in sug- 
gesting the analogy of a journey, etc., assists in producing this 
result. The conception of meeting friends in heaven, which, as 
our returns show, is such an important content of the idea of 
future life, is felt in greater force immediately after their death, 
and gradually diminishes with time. The difficulty of running 
on in thought beyond avery few immediate events, such as the 
welcome, the judgment, etc.,which, as our returns show, is in 
a proportion of 4 to 1, shows another side of this same ques- 
tion. On the whole, immortality, as reported in the present 
data at least, is a great deal less concrete than the present life. 
It is in fact a weakened repetition of the present, and asa 
weakened repetition tends to irradiate, dissipate, or discharge, 
the ideas which necessarily arise in the mind because the phys- 
ical substrate or psychic mechanism, once formed, is but slow- 
ly modified in response to new conditions. This senescence 
and death of our own qualities are the natural consequence of 
the death of those whom we have known. Even if the idea 
should not gradually disappear, as we shall see later, it is at 
least (to say nothing of the ontology of the matter) a better 
economy of vital forces that it should be localized in the future 
and some distant place than that it should be ready to appear 
at any place and time. 

But it is equally necessary to note that the idea of immor- 
tality has never been a perfect means of irradiation. There 
is still a very large residue of feeling, sometimes the greater 
moiety, which lingers round the body. The natural ascrip- 
tion of life to the dead still retains its hold upon us, even in 
face of a belief in immortality. 


114 SCOTT : 


Here we may note as a very basal radiation of the expe- 
rience of death the ceremony of the funeral. This ceremony, 
ostensibly undertaken for the benefit of the dead, just for this 
reason, in reality succeeds in focusing the associations con- 
nected with the departed in a suitable manner upon certain 
definite objective events. The bald intellectual perception or 
recognition of death does not sufficiently impress us with the 
reality of departure. The oration, which sums up the life 
and virtues of the deceased, the slow hypnotic movements, 
the solemn music, the measured tread, as well as the neces- 
sary expense which these entail, impress the imagination 
with the reality of the whole event, have a cathartic effect 
upon the emotions, and thus give a certain discharge to and 
assist in ‘‘ reefing in’’ the associated ideas which naturally 
linger round the bodily presence of the dead. When these 
rites are the keys of large emotions, such as love, the irradia- 
tion is all the more important, and is powerfully assisted by 
the natural ritual of tears and sobs. 

When for any reason this irradiation or discharge has not 
been accomplished, the centres or pathways connected with 
the old life, although out of connection with the present, are 
more liable to remain active, and thus become morbid and 
reactionary. 

Here we enter upon ground which has of late awakened 
the greatest interest. The phenomena of second life treated 
by Benedikt (pamphlet), the auto-mimesis of W. Smith 
Baker, as well as a good deal of the current imitation theory 
of Royce and Baldwin, the double personality of Binet, Janet 
and Charcot, the hypnotic therapy of Krafft-Ebing, Ham- 
mond, Meebius and Strimpel, the Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde 
of some moralists, the conversion theory of Dr. James Leuba, 
and still more illustrative for our purposes the articles of 
Breur and Freud,! have their origin in similar conditions. 
These latter authors claim that the ordinary hysteria is quite 
analogous to the severer traumatic forms, both depending 
~ upon the non-healing of psychic wounds. Retention-hysteria 
is a term used by Freud to designate cases where often by 
strong compulsion of the will, the mind is so strained that 
although an objectionable idea is banished from conscious- 
ness, it has in reality been retained unconsciously and is the 
more dangerous since out of control of the other normal reac- 
tions. As he shows by many cases, this idea is capable of 
coming up in another form as a fixed idea or impulsive act, 
which seems to the patient to be entirely objective, and whose 
connection with his former conduct and experience may be 
quite unknown to him, but capable under hypnotic treatment 


* Neurologisches Centralblatt, ’93, Nos. 1, 2; 794, Nos. 10, 11. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 115 


of being revealed to the investigator, and frequently suscept- 
ible of cure. Cases of this kind are not infrequent, and 
especially in connection with the sexual life, whose morbid 
phenomena are so largely a matter of faulty radiation. A 
couple of his cases may be cited. One, of an employee 
who, after receiving ill treatment from his chief, had hysteri- 
cal attacks, during which he did not speak or show any signs 
of hallucination, and of which he had no memory after pass- 
ing through them. Hypnotized, however, and the attack 
thus occasioned, he revealed that during this time he lived 
through the scene where his master had attacked him on the 
street and struck him with a stick, while he was without 
means of obtaining justice or redress. Another, of a young 
wife who came to the physician complaining of an irresistible 
impulse to stab her 6-year-old only son and throw herself 
over the banister. She evidently honestly described herself 
to her physician as not being a woman of amorous tendencies, 
and as satisfied with her married life, but under hypnotiza- 
tion complained bitterly of the unhappiness occasioned by 
unsatisfied desires, and in this way accounted for her im- 
pulse to suicide. 

In many of these cases the suggestion, while in the hypnotic 
state, of justification, or of carrying out in some way a 
natural reaction of the emotional condition, has been found to 
remove the morbid phenomena altogether. This cathartic 
method of treatment evidently points to the existence of a 
sort of morbid ‘‘ pocket,’’ or detached associational group, 
which thus becomes connected with a curative outlet for its 
activity. 

Three of our returns on the subject of death report compar- 
able phenomena. One, of a gentleman, afterwards a medical 
man, who claims to have seen the ghost or image of his uncle 
appear to him at night just before going to bed and when he 
was not thinking of him at all, although he had shortly be- 
fore heard of his death. Another, after traveling some dis- 
tance to see his mother, was too late for the funeral, but is 
positive that in broad daylight he saw his mother coming 
along the path towards him. The third case is that of a 
gentleman who had just returned to his own home many 
hundred miles from the bedside of his mother, who was not 
expected to die for some time. She, however, died suddenly 
shortly after his return, and he was unable to be present at 
the funeral. Several nights after receiving word of her death, 
and without any special dwelling upon the subject, he was 
troubled with heart-rending dreams, in which he represented 
the body of his mother being torn from the bed on which he 


Of. the file of similar cases reported by the Soc. for Psy. Research. 
8 


116 SCOTT : 

had last seen her, and dragged shamefully around the room. 
It may not be too much to suggest that in the cases described, 
since they were single cases in the experience of the indi- 
viduals, the funeral might very probably have tended towards 
the prevention of these slightly morbid phenomena. Hedge} 
thinks that a study of the records of apparitions shows that 
they occur generally in daylight, and ‘‘ that the best authen- 
ticated cases are those of living persons or persons 2n articulo 
mortis, or recently departed, and not of persons long de- 
ceased.’’ 

The naive ideas of primitive people as revealed both in 
their conception of the soul and in their burial customs, 
which are much more than with us associated together, are 
most easily explained on the supposition of some such 
psychic mechanism as we have described. The Matambo 
(negro) widows, for example, ‘‘have themselves ducked in 
the river or pond to drown off the souls of their departed 
husbands who might still be hanging about them, clinging 
closest to their best loved wives.’’? After this ceremony 
they marry again. Some tribes drive a nail through the 
skull to keep the body down.® The burning of effigies when 
a man has died ati sea or at a distance, is a common practice. 
In the graveyards in New England gravestones may often be 
seen in memory of those who have died at sea. Frazer+ 
gives an account of an old historical custom that when 
a man turns up later on, he is not permitted to enter at the 
door, but must come down the chimney, and is clothed and 
fed like an infant for some time after. With the Iroquois a 
speech of condolence is made to the body of the dead chief, 
after which occurs the installation of his successor.® With 
the Algonquins a public address is also made to the body at 
burial. Some Indians believe that the tears shed for the 
departed go to the other world. A child burdened down by 
the weight of a full tear-mug appears to her mother and begs 
her to cry no more.” The material buried with the dead are 
generally supposed to make him contented with his future 
life, and thus relieve the living from anxiety. The hell shoon 
of northern races were intended to expedite the departed in 


1“Ghost Seeing,” N. A. Mas 133: 286. 

? Tylor, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 

3’ James G. Frazer, “The Primitive Ghost and His Relatives,’’Pop. 
Science Mo. , XXVIL 668. 

4 Loc. cit. 

’ Horatio Hale, ‘‘ The Lee Book of Rites,”’? Phil., 1883, p. 60. 

5 Tylor, op. cit. , Vol. I, p. 4 

7 Bastian, “Bth. per hy ” Bad. II, p. 333. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 117 


his long journey, and thus helped to impress the imagination 
with his increasing distance from the living. With closer 
observation and a better discrimination of objective and sub- 
jective facts, these customs become more consciously symbol- 
ical, and thus show themselves all the better as radiations. 
Tylor: thinks that the custom of offering gifts to the dead 
has decayed. ‘The modern Hindoo, for example, presents a 
small piece of woolen yarn to his dead parent and says, ‘‘May 
this apparel made of woolen yarn be acceptable to thee.’’ 
The Chinese have reduced their sacrifices to a paper basis. 
For the benefit of their parents, especially, they burn mock 
money, ‘‘paper houses replete with every luxury,’’? and 
other representations of everything supposed to be necessary 
for future existence. Paper is used to make the boats, which 
are furnished with candles, sent to sea and watched till they 
disappear, at the Japanese Festival of the Dead, or Feast 
of Lanterns.? Tylor says* that in ‘‘modern centuries the 
Japanese borrow money in this life to be repaid with 
heavy interest in the next.’’ An inartistic custom of this 
kind must tend to break up the whole ritual. 

At the present day the windows are left open after death 
for the soul to pass, and the body is carried out feet foremost, 
or with his face away from the door, a custom, of which 
although the meaning is now generally unknown, originated 
in the idea of preventing the dead from seeing the way back 
again. For the same reason in Ireland the body is frequently 
carried to the grave by a circuitous route. Among certain 
negro tribes a hole is made in the wall, out of which the body 
is carried, and which is afterwards carefully stopped up. 
Sometimes the body is run rapidly round the house three or 
four times, after which his ideas of locality are supposed to be 
uncertain. 

When these discharging radiations did not occur, the asso- 
ciation knot made itself felt in the seeing of ghosts and other 
Similar phenomena. The ghost of a body which was un- 
buried, or buried without the funeral rites, was believed by 
many nations to haunt the relatives of the deceased. Accord- 
ing to the classical story, Eukrates’ wife appeared and de- 
manded the sandal which had not been burnt. The story of 
Periander and Melissa is similar to this. With the Iroquois, 
the soul remains in the neighborhood of the corpse and is 
restless till burial. In Brazil, the soul haunts the survivors 


‘Op. cit., p. 492. 

*Tylor, op. cit., p. 493. 

9‘ Lafcadio Hearn,’’ Atlantic Monthly, 68:382. 
*Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 491. 


118 SCOTT: 


till burial. With the Acheron, the unburied wander rest- 
lessly around. With the Slaves, the soul flies around till 
the body is burnt.? 

Those who had made a great impression on the community 
were of course the most difficult to keep down, and special 
ceremonies had to be undertaken. The followers of Attila, 
for example, turned aside the course of a river, buried him 
in the middle of it, and turned on the water. Murderers, 
even in recent times, were pinioned to the ground by a stake 
driven through the body. 

The very frequent conception of three or four different 
souls shows the difficulty of radiation under one idea. These 
souls come in just where the old associations connected with 
the dead would be touched upon by various objective facts 
or conditions of the environment. With the Siamese one 
soul stays in the house, one in the cloister, one in the wood, 
and one wanders around. With the Fijians, the shade goes 
to the under world, the bright spirit remains by the body. 
With the Dakotas, one soul remains in the village, one in the 
air, one goes to the spirit land, and one remains by the body. 
With the Khouo, one soul dies with the decay of the body, 
One remains in the race to be born again, one is taken by 
Bura, and one wanders around. With the Malagese, one 
goes in the air, one dies, and one haunts the grave.? The 
Latin, spiritus, manes, umbra; the Greek, psyche, nous, 
pneuma, and the Egyptian, ba, akh, ka, khaba, or soul, 
spirit, life principle, shade, played a similar part in their 
mythologies. 


Death, Altruism and Sex. As the returns from the ques- 
tionnaire show in the most emphatic manner,the conception of 
death does not awaken in the most of cases a very deep in- 
dividualistic or self-centred consciousness. The centre of 
the idea of death and its radiations is outside of what is ordi- 
narily called the self, and essentially altruistic. In dwelling 
- on death (Rubric 11), and also in contemplating suicide, it is 
the feelings of others which are most frequently in the focus 
of consciousness, although behind this there is of course the 
motivation of personal feelings. The age of this dwell- 
ing is also significant. The first idea of death in the 
child (Rubric 9) is, as with early man, the death of 
others. Our instinctive feelings of self-preservation really do 
not bring in the idea of death at all, but are hereditarily 
much deeper and more ancient than this peculiarly human 


‘Bastian, op. cit., Bd. II, p. 331. 
* Bastian, op. cit., Bd. II, p. 331, ete. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 119 


conception. We save ourselves first by an uncontrollable 
reflex and its accompanying or discharging fear. The idea 
of death and its irradiations come later. 

The ideas of primitive folk bear the same character. The 
ghost is feared to a much greater extent than is the idea of 
death for self. In most of cases, indeed, death is met quite 
fearlessly, or at least without the ability to realize its mean- 
ing. Stanley tells of offering to buy a negro who was penned 
up and being fed and otherwise indulged, but who was to be 
killed and eaten some weeks later. The negro, however, re- 
fused to go with him, preferring the present good treatment 
for a short time to working for his living. When the con- 
ception of death is first realized, itis generally not primarily 
in connection with self as such, but in connection with those 
reactions, part of ourselves of course, which refer to other 
people. In many early races, immortality was not con- 
ceived possible for the mass of the people, but these believed 
faithfully in the immortality of their kings and rulers, who 
of course were those who had impressed them most, and who 
thus really were the occasion of brain arrangements or their 
psychical equivalents, which were but slowly side-tracked or 
irradiated. 

The disinclination to quit life seems to be the greatest 
when the deep altruistic tendencies arising from the sexual 
life are at their strongest. Tables of suicides show that this 
crime becomes more frequent at and after the grand climac- 
teric. Old men who still desire to live, are those who have pre- 
served the upper irradiations of the reproductive life in love 
and sympathy for their fellows.?. As the late Lord Shaftes- 
bury said of himself, the ceasing of the opportunity to do 
good for others is the principal motive for fearing death in 
many old people of the best type. Characters of another 
kind seem to lose their interest in life with advancing age, 
and have little reluctance to die. 

A deep reference to the sexual and reproductive life per- 
vades much of the ideas of ancient people on this subject. A 
few cases have already been cited where immortality of one 
part, at least, meant survival in the race. The Indians of 
California explain atavism by saying that the soul of the an- 
cestor has come back. Phalli were dried and buried with 


'The very idea of self may in some cases be largely made up of 
extra individualistic reactions, or aconception of self may be re- 
garded as a function of others. The fondness of the epistemolo- 
gists for pointing out the relativity of these conceptions points in 
this direction (as a matter of origin). 

* Of. author’s article on ‘‘ Sex and Art.”’ 


120 SCOTT : 


mummies in Egypt. Bastian! identifies the Roman Lares 
and genii. The Lares were originally rude images of male 
and female organs of generation. The genii were of course 
disembodied souls. Forlong (‘‘Rivers of Faith’’) shows the 
identity of ancestor worship with phallicism in its earliest 
forms. Ancestor worship, as we have seen, is merged in the 
belief in ghosts, etc., from which Spencer develops religion. 
Bodies are frequently buried in the same posture in which 
the embryo is found in the womb. According to the Susus, 
the spirit sometimes takes up its abode in a grandchild.? 
Frequently afrelative receives the soul. With the Romans 
the son, or ailing him the nearest relative, stood over the 
body of the dying man to receive his last breath. Many 
tribes hold the baby of a dying mother over her mouth for 
the same reason. Celibacy was frequently regarded as a 
crime in reference to the certainty of death.* The first in- 
scription of the Egyptian papyri, perhaps the oldest writing 
in the world, contains the advice to marry early and have a 
son.* The Greeks buried their youth at night, ‘‘for so 
dreadful a calamity was this (the death of youth) accounted 
that they thought it indecent and even impious to reveal it 
in the face of the sun.’’> The three hundred Lacedemonians 
chosen by Leonidas were all of them fathers with sons living. ® 
When ‘the human plant had flowered,’’? death was not 
regarded asa shame. This may be compared with the ex- 
perience of H. B., pp. 90f. 

The sexual life, which, as we saw underlies and punctuates 
the other periods of life, is of very great importance for the 
last. Not only by the social ties which its proper function 
calls into being, thus developing the higher sexual radiations 
of love and sympathy, but on the lower ranges of physiology 
as well, does the adequate discharge at their proper period 
of these great hereditary emotions tend to produce a healthy 
and happy old age. The returnof the ghost of the sexual 
life after it should be properly laid, is even more trouble- 
some and injurious than is the reappearance of our friends or 
enemies. Here, as well as in the face of the immediate ob- 
servation of death, is the cathartic rather than the repressive 
method calculated to produce the best effect. When the 
sexual functions have been denied or insufficiently radiated 


1 Op. cit., Bd. II, p. 330. 

* Bastian, op. cit., p. 331. 

° Cf. Renouf, ‘“‘ The Religion of Ancient Egypt,”’ p. 148. 

* Amelineau, ‘‘ La Morale Egyptienne.”’ Cf. also Ecclesiastes. 
*Tegg, ‘* The Last Act,”’ p. 32. 

°Renouf, op. cit., p. 148. 


OLD AGE AND DEATH. 121 


(and their normal gratification is the easiest and most 
natural condition of their radiation), there is plenty of evi- 
dence to show the danger of a recrudescence in old age of the 
sexual passion in morbid forms of the most unhealthy 
type.1 Many senile exhibitionists, perverts, etc., as well as 
Clouston’s? old maid’s insanity, come under this rubric. 

The feeling of guilt, just the obverse of the demand for 
justice which is such a strong motive in the longing for im- 
mortality, is shown nowhere more frequently than in 
connection with aberrations of the sexual life. The develop- 
mental insanity of pubescence connected with failure of the 
sexual life, is frequently marked by excessive feeling of 
guilt and often by fear, sometimes of damnation. Many 
cases of senile dementia also present this character.? With 
the dropping out of the sexual life and with its failure to lay 
up treasure for itself in the higher regions of the brain, there 
may thus be either recrudescence of the lower, or complete 
loss of all the emotions of love, either generative or regenera- 
tive, and their substitution by feelings of guilt and fear. 

The slighter phenomena of the grand climacteric, the in- 
crease of fears, disposition to starts, flushings, burnings, 
_ kleptomania, are significant here. When this period is safely 
passed, however, it often results in a wider, more intellectual, 
if not a deeper interest in the race. Many have noticed the 
number of women at this age who fill lecture halls, conduct 
meetings, and push causes of every kind. 

The history of the idea of immortality as contained in 
phallicism and other ancient religions, bears the strongest 
evidence as to the connection of the ideas of sex and death. 

To conclude, as biologically death and sex come in to- 
gether, so in the higher psychical life their irradiations are 
the most closely associated. Sex and reproduction, first a 
means of overcoming death, sacrifices in doing so the con- 
tinuity of individual life, but intensifies it by the whole course 
of evolution. So in the soul-life, love is greater than death, 
not mystically, but simply as a matter of fact, while the con- 
ception of death serves to intensify the psychical life, and 
give a foil and sense of earnestness* to all our enthusiasms. 
This great background thought has framed not only the deep- 
est love, but also the greatest productions of art, religion and 


1 Schopenhauer went so far as to say that pederasty was allowable 
for old age. 

2“ Mental Diseases.”’ 

3A number of cases of this kind were observed by the present 
La at the clinics of Dr. Meyer of the Worcester Hospital for the 

nsane. 

4Cf. Hawthorne’s ‘‘ The Marble Fawn.” 


122 SCOTT. 


philosophy. God and immortality have risen in obedience 
to the infinite yearnings with which it stirs the soul. What- 
ever ontological truth may lie behind these ideas, and 
that is a question which we have not entered upon here, it 
remains for us to use these great ideas to the full as the psy- 
chological functions which we have attempted to show they 
are, and to bring thus into the here and now of one life-time 
the best and highest realization of which it is at present capa- 
ble. In any case the deep life of love, with the care for off- 
spring, and the natural and spiritual continuity or immortality 
which they ensure, is the tidal wave upon which all these ideas 
are upborne, and which, showing itself before maturity and lin- 
gering often in its highest radiations into age, in its best func- 
tion and discharge unites into one whole the different periods 
of life. The principal danger to be avoided, is hardening into 
a blind fetichism radiations, which are only vital as they 
recognize the source from which they spring. In the best 
conditions, however, these radiations help to harmonize the 
different periods of life. Youth, maturity, old age, are the 
sub-major, major and minor chords, of which the eternal 
dominant note is love. 

It is impossible for me to close this paper without ac- 
knowledging in the warmest way the continued help and 
sympathy of Pres. G. Stanley Hall in the prosecution of this 
study, the subject of which was suggested to me in the course 
of one of his lectures, while his whole treatment of ancient 
philosophy and Christianity during the present year has been 
of the greatest service in its elaboration. To Drs. Hodge, 
Sanford, Burnham and Chamberlain, I am also much indebted 
for many kind suggestions concerning the literature in their 
fields. As to the indispensable cooperation of the many 
friends who have answered the questionnaire, I have already 
spoken. 








